Emotional and Social Development PDF

Emotional and Social Development Erikson’s Theory ○ Initiative v. Guilt (ages 3-6) ○ Learn to become more independent, sense of purposefulness Eager to try new tasks, join in activities with peers, discover what they can do (with the help...

Emotional and Social Development Erikson’s Theory ○ Initiative v. Guilt (ages 3-6) ○ Learn to become more independent, sense of purposefulness Eager to try new tasks, join in activities with peers, discover what they can do (with the help of adults) wanting to pick out their own clothes, brush their own teeth, work on things on her own Learn they can have power over themselves and in the world What does “guilt” in this stage look like? ○ more dependent on parent, not confident, if a parent is overly critical it could cause them guilt/shame, Self-concept: set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines themselves Self-esteem: judgments we make about our own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments Emotional competence improves ○ Better able to talk about feelings and respond to others’ emotional signals ○ Better at emotional self-regulation ○ Self-conscious emotions and empathy Parenting strongly influences emotional competence Gender Cultural, social, and psychological meanings associated with masculinity and femininity Gender roles Expectations for patterns of behavior males and females should adopt in a particular society Gender Stereotypes Society’s norms generate overgeneralized (and largely inaccurate) beliefs about characteristics of all males and all females Gender-stereotyped beliefs strengthen in early childhood ○ Often apply them as rules ○ Age 4: play 3x more with same-sex playmates ○ Age 6: play 11x more with same-sex playmates What does gender role development begin? Gender Identity One’s own personal sense of what their gender is Social learning theory Gender schema theory: how environmental pressures and children’s cognitions work together to shape gender-role development ○ Develop gender schemas ○ Apply the categories to themselves Transgender children who social transitioned between 3 and 12 years old Similar gender development as cisgender peers Those who lived daily life according to their gender identity and were supported by families exhibited positive mental health Intersex Individuals Born with either an absence or some combination of male and female reproductive organs, sex hormones, or sex chromosomes ○ 2% of world’s population Conditions ○ Klinefelter Syndrome: inherit extra X chromosome (XXY instead of XY) Small testes, do not develop sperm, may not develop much body hair, may experience breast development ○ Turner Syndrome: instead of XX, have only one X chromosome present and fully functional Female sex characteristics present but underdeveloped Short stature, broad chest, lymphedema, low hairline, infertility Parenting Styles Diana Baumrind ○ acceptance and involvement ○ control ○ autonomy granting Discipline American Academy of Pediatrics ○ "Aversive disciplinary strategies, including all forms of corporal punishment and yelling at or shaming children, are minimally effective in the short-term and not effective in the long-term. With new evidence, researchers link corporal punishment to an increased risk of negative behavioral, cognitive, psychosocial, and emotional outcomes for children." Child Maltreatment abuse ○ physical, sexual, neglect, emotional Parents commit more than 80% of abusive incidents Other relatives account for 7% 13% other adults in child’s life Physical Development Average weight height at age 6 ○ 45 lbs ○ 3.5 ft tall  add about 2-3 inches in height each year gain about 5 pounds in weight each year lower portion of body grows fastest after age 8, girls begin accumulating body fat at a faster rate than boys bones lengthen and broaded, ligaments not yet firmly attached, increasing musle strength flexible increased desire for physical exercise have growing pains growth spurt that occurs prior to puberty ○ girls around 9, boys at 11 all baby teeth are lost and replaced ○ girls lose their teeth before boys growth of facial bones, especially jaw and chin Brain Growth two major brain growth spurts ○ between 6 and 8 find motor skills and hand eye coordination improve significantly ○ between 10 and 12 frontal lobes become more developed improvements in memory, planning, logic Sports in 2022, 55% of children 6-11 played sports participation in sports has been linked to ○ increased self esteem and social skills ○ improved physical and emotional development ○ better academic performance barriers ○ cost ○ lack of access to facilities or programs ○ social pressure ○ time constraints ○ lack of interest in knowledge in 2022 33% of children living in poverty played sports, compared to 41% of children whose family incomes were one to two times the poverty level Childhood Obesity Child Health Crisis  Children’s eating and physical activity rely on the basis of the food and activity opportunities available in their homes, schools, and communities A multitude of factors: ○ Genetics: “a large majority of the variance in BMI in young children is related to genetics” ○ Dietary patterns: high-sugar, energy-dense, low-fiber, high-fat foods ○ Screen time ○ Physical activity ○ Poverty in early life ○ Psychosocial stressors ○ Stress alters stress hormones, body fat alters functioning of these same stress hormones Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage ( ages 7 -11) Evidence of operations Mental actions that obey logical rules Decentration Reversibility Classification Seriation Spatial reasoning Cognitive maps Information Processing Working memory capacity Executive function Attention Memory strategies Language Development Vocabulary Bilingual Development When acquiring both languages at the same time in early childhood Attain early language milestones according to a typical timetable When school-age children acquire a second language after they already speak a first language  Takes fives to seven years to attain speaking and writing skills similar to those of native-speaking agemates A sensitive period for second-language development Mastery must begin sometime in childhood for most second-language learners to attain full proficiency ○ Developmental benefits ○ Those fluent in two languages outperform others on tests of selective attention, analytical reasoning, concept formation, and cognitive flexibility ○ Advanced in detection of errors in grammar and meaning ○ Can enhance reading achievement Industry v. Inferiority Erickson’s psychological conflict of this stage Resolved positively when children develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks Inferiority: lack of confidence in ability to do things well, sense of inadequacy Self Concept Describe selves in more nuanced ways Might emphasize competencies Personality—positive and negative traits Social comparisons Judgments of their appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others Improved ability to infer what other people are thinking and expecting Form an ideal self they use to evaluate their real self Self Esteem Self-esteem declines during first few years of elementary school Four broad areas of self-evaluation Academic competence Social competence Physical/athletic competence Physical appearance Culture Parenting practices Achievement-related attributions Mastery-oriented attributions Learned helplessness Moral reasoning The thinking process involved in deciding whether an act is right or wrong The way an individual reasons about the dilemma, not the content of the response determines moral maturity We learn moral values through active thinking and reasoning Peer Relationships Peers become an important context for development Peer groups Friendships contribute to development of trust and sensitivity School-age friendships are more selective Remain relatively stable; 50-70% over a school year and some for several years Context to learn to tolerate criticism and resolve disputes Peer Acceptance Researchers use self-reports that measure social preferences Social categories: ○ Popular: well-liked ○ Rejected: disliked ○ Controversial: both liked and disliked ○ Neglected: seldom mentioned Adolescence and Adulthood Puberty: period of rapid growth and sexual maturation ○ Girls—around age 10 ○ Boys—around age 12 Sexual Development ○ Primary sexual characteristics: changes in the reproductive organs Girls: growth of the uterus, menarche (first menstrual period) Average age of menarche: 11.9 years Boys: growth of testes, scrotum, penis; spermarche (first ejaculation) Average age of spermarche: around 13.5 or 14 ○ Secondary sexual characteristics: visible on outside of body Girls: breast development, underarm and pubic hair, widening of hips Boys: underarm and pubic hair, facial hair, deepening of voice ○ Timing of puberty Early maturing Late maturing The Teenage Brain ○ Myelination and development of connections between neurons Increased white matter ○ Synaptic pruning Gray matter thins and becomes more efficient ○ Corpus callosum thickens ○ Hippocampus becomes more strongly connected to frontal lobes Sleep ○ Teens need ______ hours of sleep, sometimes up to ____ ○ Less than 20% get this amount on school days and weekends ○ Circadian rhythms change, shifting later, during teenage years ○ What other factors can influence teenagers’ sleep? Cognitive Development Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage ○ Abstract principles ○ Hypothetical-deductive reasoning ○ Transitivity ○ Imaginary audience ○ Personal fable Erikson’s stages of development ○ Identity v. Role Confusion  ○ Marcia identified four identity statuses that represent dimensions of commitment and exploration Youth Risk Behavior Survery ○ Sexual behavior ○ Substance use ○ Experiencing violence ○ Mental health and suicidal thoughts and behaviors ○ New and emerging national data Arnett’s Emerging Adulthood ○ Ages 18 to 29 ○ Age of: Identity exploration Instability Self-focus Feeling “in between” Possibilities Parents and Young Adult Children ○ Text at least a few times a week  ○ Talk on the phone at least a few times a week ○ Helped their child financially in the past year ○ Adult children that say they are completely financially independent from their parents ○ Among those who are not financially independent ○ Track their adult child’s location with GPS apps, even if only rarely Young adults and vocational choice ○ Hollands theory of vocational choice Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional U.S. workers without a college degree ○ Customer service reps ○ Nursing, psychiatric, and home-health aides ○ First-line supervisors of sales workers ○ Cashiers ○ Waitresses ○ Secretaries and admin assistants ○ Driver/sales workers and truck drivers ○ Construction laborers ○ Laborers and freight, stock and material movers ○ First-line supervisors of sales workers ○ Chefs and cooks ○ Managers Established Adulthood ○ Ages 30-45 ○ “The rush hour of life” Relationships Careers Marriage Children Friendship Relationships in Adulthood ○ Erikson’s psychosocial stage: Intimacy v. Isolation Ages 19-40 ○ In relationships, those who have achieved intimacy are cooperative, tolerant, accepting of differences in backgrounds and values  ○ Those with a sense of isolation hesitate to form close ties for fear of losing their own identity, tend to compete rather than cooperate, are not accepting of differences, and feel threatened when others get too close Close Relationships ○ Perceived similarity in values and beliefs ○ Self-disclosure (needs to be reciprocal) ○ Proximity—mere exposure Attachment and Adult Romantic Relationships ○ Early experiences provide the foundation for subsequent experiences ○ Security is best viewed as a culmination of a person’s attachment history rather than a reflection of only their early experiences Physical Changes Vision changes Decreased ability to focus on nearby objects; difficulty reading small print Decreased ability to see in dim light ○ Declines in ability to see color Vision changes ○ Cataracts (cloudy areas in the lens) cause foggy vision and, without surgery, blindness ○ Macular degeneration ○ Light sensitive cells in center of retina breakdown ○ Leading cause of blindness among older adults Hearing changes ○ Affects safety and enjoyment of life ○ More loneliness and depressive symptoms ○ Smaller social network than normally- hearing peers ○ Decline in speech perception has greatest impact on life satisfaction ○ Inner ear structures deteriorate ○ First sign is decline in sensitivity to high- frequency sounds ○ Men’s hearing tends to decline earlier and more rapidly Changes in skin ○ Loosens ○ Wrinkles ○ Feels dry ○ Lines develop on forehead in the 30s ○ In 40s, “crow’s-feet” appear around eyes ○ After age 50, “age spots,” collections of pigment under the skin, increase  Bone changes ○ Mineral content of bones decline, causing gradual loss of bone density ○ Begins around age 40 and increases in the 50s, especially for women ○ Loss of bone strength causes disks in spinal column to collapse Reproductive system changes ○ Women experience a about a ten-year period of gradual change in which production of estrogen drops ○ Menstrual cycles become shorter and more irregular ○ Menopause: end of menstruation and reproductive capacity Average age: early 50s After menopause, estrogen declines further Increase in sexual functioning problems No male counterpart to menopause Quantity and motility of sperm decreases Decreases in fertility in middle age Reduced blood flow and changes to tissue in the penis Attitudes Toward Late Adulthood ○ In Western nations, older adults often viewed as weak, boring, debilitated ○ Stereotype threat: diminished performance on tasks related to the stereotype ○ Positive stereotypes reduce stress and foster physical and mental competence ○ In cultures where older adults are treated with deference and respect, aging can be a source of pride Cognitive Changes ○ Crystallized intelligence (skills that depend on accumulated knowledge and experience) increases steadily through middle adulthood ○ Fluid intelligence (depends on basic information-processing skills) begins to decline in the 20s ○ Cognitive Changes in Memory ○ Autobiographical memory Cognitive Changes in Memory ○ Difficulty with memory tasks that are timed (working memory, processing speed, attention) ○ Less decline in verbal than spatial memory ○ Recognition v. recall memory ○ Associative memory deficit: difficulty creating and retrieving links between pieces of information ○ More difficulties with episodic memory (everyday experiences) ○ Less age differences in implicit memory  ○ When given opportunities to pace and direct their own learning, do not see the same age-related declines Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage: Generativity v. Stagnation (40-65 yrs) ○ Reaching out to others in ways that give to and guide the next generation ○ Family, community, society What are some ways adults can achieve generativity? ○ Stagnation ○ “Sandwich generation” Middle-aged adults who have a parent 65+ and have a child younger than 18 (or provide financial support to an adult child) Kinkeeping ○ Kinkeeper: person within the household that is involved in the management of family relationships ○ Connect family members ○ Manage relationships on behalf of the family household ○ Facilitate ties that have become disrupted Divorce ○ About 39% of first marriages end in divorce ○ Average length of marriage prior to divorce is 8 years ○ Average cost of divorce is $7,000 ○ 64% of men and 52% of women get married again ○ 67% of second marriages end in divorce ○ 73% of third marriages end in divorce ○ 6% of divorced couples get remarried to each other ○ 72% remain married ○ 57% of couples who did not live together before marriage ended up being married 20 years or more ○ 46% of couples who lived together before marriage were not married to one another 20 years on Divorce Stress-Adjustment Perspective ○ Divorce in itself does not lead to negative consequences for family members, but rather family life changes and stressful circumstances surrounding the divorce can increase risk of variety of problems among children Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage: Ego Integrity v. Despair (ages 65+) ○ Coming to terms with one’s life Acceptance of their life and inevitability of ○ A sense of integrity leads to feeling whole, complete, satisfied with achievements ○ Despair ○ Bitterness, defeat, hopelessness; may be expressed as anger and contempt for others