French Revolution Past Paper PDF

2024-10-17 Three key events prior to the creation of the Constitution of 1791 (Sept. 3) made the long-term success of the newly created Legislative Assembly less likely. (Look at page above) ​ The King’s Flight to Varennes (June 20, 1791) ​ The Champs de Mars massacre (July 17, 1791) ​ The...

2024-10-17 Three key events prior to the creation of the Constitution of 1791 (Sept. 3) made the long-term success of the newly created Legislative Assembly less likely. (Look at page above) ​ The King’s Flight to Varennes (June 20, 1791) ​ The Champs de Mars massacre (July 17, 1791) ​ The Declaration of Pillnitz (August 27, 1791) and Brunswick Manifesto (August 1, 1792) Austria and Prussia indicated that force would be used in order to restore the powers of the crown. The first meeting of the new Legislative Assembly took place on October 1, 1791. Only ¼ of active citizens participated in elections. Self-denying ordinance meant the most experienced political leaders weren’t part of the Legislative Assembly. The key problem was that Louis had demonstrated his unwillingness to rule as a constitutional monarch (flight to Varness). As a result, the call for a republic grew louder. About 50,000 congregated in the Champs de Mars to sign a petition calling for a French republic. The National Guard, led by Lafayette, was called out to subdue the crowd. The National Guard opened fire killing about 50 unarmed people. This represented a clear break within the Third Estate. War with Austria declared in April of 1792. Constitution of 1791 (Created September 3, 1791) ​ Louis was granted substantial power and authority, yet escaped France in hopes of convincing Austria and Prussia to attack France and restore the absolute monarchy ​ Only active citizens can become a National Guardsman ○​ People question this policy Succession of governments, with different sets of rules (constitution), indicates political instability National Symbols Assignment (Cult of the Supreme Being and Cult of Reason) a.​ What exactly was the innovation (Did it have a specific origin?) and what, if anything, did it replace? ​ Cult of the Supreme Being (secular religion - constitution) established by Robespierre in 1794 ​ Replaces the Cult of Reason (atheistic) and Catholicism b.​ What was its purpose? ​ Unify the French and maintain social order by providing a set of values and morals ​ Robespierre believed that faith in a higher power (saw himself as the exemplar of virtue) was needed for social stability  ​ The Cult was authorized by the National Convention in May of 1794 as civic religion of France c.​ Was it successful? ​ Not very successful ​ Faced resistance from both public and political factions ​ Many people saw it as an attempt to impose state religion ​ The Cult lost support and was officially banned by Napoleon in 1802 after Robespierre was executed d.​ Does Canada have an equivalent? ​ Canada is a multicultural country ​ People are allowed to freely practice their faith ​ Government does not endorse any religion ​ Government practices are secular 2024-10-21 Argumentative Essay ​ Properties of functioning liberal democracy ​ Analyze why certain events took place in historical essays (not argumentative) ​ State to what extent you agree or disagree with topic and defend position in argumentative essays The Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen ​ Presentism ​ Too radical and outlawed The Cult of the Supreme Being ​ Robespiere regarded himself as the supreme being and an exemplar of virtue The Metric System ​ Standardized units in base ten (natural) The Revolutionary Calendar ​ 10 days a week ​ Was not successful (too radical) ​ Desynchronized the calendar of France with other countries The Tricolore ​ Basis of French flag, taken from colors of Paris ​ Was successful and was easy to construct ​ Colors represented Third, First, and Second Estates respectively, which prioritized people over nobility The Levee en masse ​ Mass military conscription to arm a standing army defending against other monarchies ​ Policy would last until WWI in many countries ​ Standing armies were present for most developed countries La Marseillaise ​ Was the national anthem ​ Marches were the most effective way to rally large amounts of people to a destination song ​ Roused soldiers for war with violent lyrics Bastille Day ​ National day of France celebrating the storming of the Bastille The Guillotine The Revolutionary Clock ​ Divides the day into 10 hours “Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite” ​ Simple political slogans aim to capture audience ​ Took a hundred years to become popular (not immediately) ​ Canada: From Sea to Sea; Peace, Order, Good Government Key Characters of the French Revolution Assignment a.​ His / Her early life ​ Olympe de Gouges was born Marie Gouze in 1748 in Montauban, France ​ Her father was a carpenter ​ Moved to Paris after her mother died ​ Became a writer and began to engage with social issues b.​ Role in the French Revolution ​ Vocal advocate for women's rights ​ Published the "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen," in 1791 ​ Argued that women should have the same rights as men ​ Also spoke against slavery and called for its abolition. c.​ Fate ​ Arrested and executed by guillotine in 1793 because of outspoken views and opposition to revolutionary government ​ Slandered Robespierre Parties to research a.​ Jacobins ​ Radical political group advocating for strong centralized government and social equality ​ Led by Maximilien Robespierre during Reign of Terror b.​ Cordeliers ​ More populist faction that championed direct democracy and rights of common people ​ Supported more radical social reforms ​ Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins c.​ Girondins ​ Moderate political group favouring constitutional government at first (later became republicans) ​ More aligned with the interests of the bourgeoisie ​ Opposed Jacobins and were purged during Reign of Terror d.​ Feuillants ​ Conservative faction that split from the Jacobins that supported constitutional monarchy rather than republic  ​ Sought to preserve some of monarchy’s powers while promoting moderate reforms The Feuillants were excluded from the Legislative Assembly due to their break from the Jacobins, as they endorsed a constitutional monarchy instead of a republican framework. Their moderate position and efforts to retain monarchical authority rendered them less influential as revolutionary sentiments became increasingly radicalized. 2024-10-23 Louis’ Attempt to Flee ​ Raised concerns about the king ​ Wielded considerable authority (over military, legislation, etc.) ​ France, under the National Assembly, supposed to be constitutional monarchy Control of the Revolution Passes from the Bourgeoisie to the Sans-Culottes ​ State is beginning to fray, evidenced by violent perpetrators not facing legal consequences (sans-culotte, fish women, etc.) ​ Political figures and revolutionaries direct violent groups’ energy to garner their support for a successful political career ​ The French military was in very poor shape. Of its 12,000 officers over half had emigrated. When war with Austria started, many French troops mutinied. The Legislative Assembly needed to take action. It passed a law calling for the deportation of refractory priests (those who would not take the oath of state allegiance) and for the disbanding of crown troops. At the same time it recruited an additional 20,000 National Guards from the provinces. ○​ Emigration of aristocrats allows for new opportunities for Third Estate to join army ○​ Opportunity to advance military position (e.g. Napoleon) ​ Louis vetoed these laws ○​ Raises more concerns about him ​ From April (when war with Austria was declared), rioting resumed and in July, the Legislative Assembly declared a state of emergency and issued a declaration of all mens to arms. “Passive” citizens were now permitted into the National Guard. ○​ State of emergency entails a temporary suspension of citizens’ rights ○​ During times of war, there may be domestic abuses of power ​ Robespierre (was not part of the Legislative Assembly) now re-entered the political arena, calling for the removal of the Constitution, the overthrow of the monarchy, the establishment of a new government (the National Convention) elected by universal male suffrage, and the removal of existing government authorities. ○​ Estates-General, Constituent Assembly, Legislative Assembly, National Convention (republic) ​ The Brunswick Manifesto was published in Paris on August 1, 1792. Austria and Prussia promised not to loot Paris and harm civilians if the French King and Queen were left alone. It did not have the intended impact. ○​ Led to another journee directly against Louis, who was forcibly brought back to the Tuileries The Attack on the Tuileries ​ On August 3, 1792, the mayor of Paris went before the Legislative assembly to have them abolish the monarchy the Assembly refused. The result became the bloodiest journee of the Revolution: the overthrow by force of the Paris Commune with a new Revolutionary Commune (August 9) and the attack on the Tuileries (August 10). The  attack was orchestrated by the Revolutionary Commune and ended with about 1,000 people dead. Louis now became a prisoner and the Legislative Assembly was forced to give up control of Paris. ○​ Second direct attack on the king and becomes a prisoner ​ This marked the final days of the Legislative Assembly; France would soon become a republic. Most of the members of the Legislative Assembly who supported a constitutional monarchy (about 2/3rds of them) stayed away from the Assembly. ​ The National Convention met for the first time on September 20, 1792; the monarchy was abolished and France officially became a republic on September 22, 1792. ○​ Reign of Terror begins with the National Convention and ends when it disbands The French Revolution Channel HD Video Jacques Hébert (1757–1794) was a French journalist and radical politician during the French Revolution. Born in Alençon, he initially worked as a clerk and playwright before moving to Paris, where he founded the influential, satirical newspaper Le Père Duchesne, through which he voiced support for the Revolution’s most extreme ideas. Hébert became a leading figure in the radical faction known as the Hébertists, who called for aggressive de-Christianization and direct democracy. However, he fell out of favor with the revolutionary government, particularly with Robespierre. In 1794, Hébert was arrested, tried, and executed by guillotine during the Reign of Terror. 2024-10-28 Polarization occurs at extreme paces ​ E.g. politics substituting for religion as a binding agent Governments of Revolution - Polarization Legislative Assembly (constitutional monarchy) ​ King is a part of the executive branch ​ Unicameral legislature (one chamber pass legislature) ○​ Canada uses a bicameral system (HOC + senate) ○​ US congress and parliament (House of Representatives + senate) ​ Citizens elect electors, who elect members (filter between people and deputies for competence) ​ Seats ○​ Jacobins, Girondins, Cordeliers are far left and occupy 136 seats (united in the belief for a republic - republicans) ○​ Independents are positioned in the center and occupy 345 seats ○​ Feuillants are a far right party and have 264 seats ​ Much is happening to prevent success of Legislative Assembly National Convention (Republic) ​ President, an elected member from the legislature with two-week term, forms the executive branch ​ Seats ○​ Jacobins and Cordeliers are far left (300) ○​ Plains are center (250) ○​ Girondins are far right (180) ​ No electors Differences Between Parties ​ Jacobins ○​ Arose from the Jacobin Club (mainly consisted of elite class individuals) ○​ More idealistic ○​ Advocated from centralized power ​ Cordeliers ○​ Came from poorer backgrounds ○​ Supported populism and poorer classes ○​ Advocated from centralized power ​ Girondins ○​ Opposed execution of the king (divides people and civil war), while the Jacobins and Cordeliers were not concerned with this matter ○​ Wanted a federation ​ Jacobins and Cordeliers were less concerned with killing people who opposed their ideas (ideologues imposing their vision on others) ​ Girondins did not wish to harm French people but were not opposed to attacking people from other countries 2024-10-30 - Argumentative Essay Writing Argumentative Essay Writing ​ Use compelling logic supported by evidence ​ Acknowledge the counterargument ​ Avoid a series of claims (shallow); build an argument SEXI ​ Statement (topic sentence) ​ Explain (thoughtfully why/how) ​ Example (real cases that are verifiable) ​ Integrate (remind reader of what you have done) Rubric ​ Recognition of limits to position and these limits are well developed We have been studying transformation from feudal society to liberal, democratic society Dictatorship is by far the best form of government. Liberal democracy, by encouraging the expression of differing points of view, encourages faction formation and disunity. To what extent do you agree? ​ “To what extent” suggests limits, which need to be addressed ​ Can you imagine a situation where it is desirable There may be situations where dictatorships are needed ​ Nuanced and sophisticated argument ​ Why an alternative may be preferable ​ Limits to position may include during times of distress or war (centralized) ​ Acknowledge counterargument Practice I ​ Democracies foster accountability and more free thought ​ Democracies prevent tyrannical governments from forming Peters’ Examples ​ Liberal democracies encourage innovation ○​ How? ○​ What are the benefits to innovation? ○​ What damage can be avoided by innovation? ​ Liberal democracies allow mistakes to be corrected ○​ How? ○​ These are the benefits of fixing errors ○​ Damages from allowing errors to fester  ​ Liberal democracies make abuse of power less likely ○​ How? ​ Liberal democracies allow people to pursue their own interests ○​ How? ​ Liberal democracies encourage compromise and consensus building ○​ How? Thesis ​ Acknowledge other situations where the alternative is more suitable (to what extent) ​ No need to outline every contention ​ Liberal democracies are preferable except in certain times when dictatorships are needed ​ Develop ideas in body of essay 2024-11-04 - Revolutionary Figures Jacobin Cap or Cap Rouge ​ A toque or headwear for peasants and working class ​ Symbolic of the sans-culotte The Power Struggle for the Convention and the Fate of the Monarchy ​ National Convention was elected by universal male suffrage ○​ The elections took place in an environment of fear and intimidation ​ Convention contained about 180 Girondins (royalist and supported Church) and 300 Jacobins ○​ The 250 remaining deputies were uncommitted and made up the Plain ○​ Increasingly hard to be a conservative or moderate (polarized society - hard to take middle ground) ​ In terms of what to do with Louis XVI, the Jacobins generally favored execution, while the Girodins favored preservation ○​ Unfolding events would ultimately seal Louis’ fate ○​ Some wanted Louis to be killed so he could not regain power ○​ In 20th century Russia, all of the Tsar’s extensive relatives were killed Armoire de fer documents ​ Chest of letters found in Tuileries that found Louis and Marie Antoinette conspiring invasion of France Marat’s suggestion that Louis’ fate be determined by appel nominal ​ Marat was a physicist and incited violence by directing people to kill any adversaries (published their address) ○​ Proposed that each deputy must voice their decision individually (standing-division) ○​ Secret ballot for deputies vs. secret ballot of citizens ​ Of the 749 deputies, none declared he was innocent; 693 voted he was guilty ○​ 387 voted for the death penalty, while 288 voted for imprisonment ○​ When a reprieve (a chance to revoke the death penalty) was voted on, 380 voted against while 310 voted for ​ Louis went to the guillotine on January 21, 1793 Centralization of Power in Jacobins ​ Jacobins resented moderation and believed it was for uncommitted and weak people ​ From this point onward, the Girondins (right side) were labeled counter-revolutionaries and royalists; they would eventually be purged from the National Convention Key Characters in the French Revolution Maximilien Robespierre  ​ Robespierre was a scholar in the field of law, who developed rhetoric skills. He was passionate about social justice (for the poor and marginalized) and was an ideologue and intellectual. He was attracted to philosophy and ideology, especially enlightened philosophes and the Roman Republic. ​ He was a member of the Estates-General and demanded for universal male suffrage. He was opposed to slavery. He also called for a constitution to be drawn and the disbanding of the Legislative Assembly. He was a Jacobin and the head of the Committee of Public Safety (executive council during the Reign of Terror). Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès ​ Grew up to be a priest and a member of the clergy (First Estate) ​ Wrote What is the Third Estate, a popular pamphlet where he argued that the Third Estate must be represented for France to be a nation ​ In favor of the confiscation of Church land and involved in committee work for the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen ​ Helped Napoleon with the Directory and later died of old age Marie Antoinette ​ Married to Louis XVI to foster the alliance between France and Austria ​ She was regarded contemptuously by the French due to her extravagant lifestyle during times of scarcity ​ Was sentenced to the guillotine shortly after Louis’ execution Jean-Paul Marat ​ Well known doctor in London who published various essays, later appointed to be a physician for Louis XVI’s younger brother ​ He was denied many opportunities in France for being protestant and was resented for his religion ​ During the Revolution, he was a journalist and is credited to inciting massacres (e.g. thousands of counter-revolutionary prisoners were slaughtered) ​ Holding radical beliefs, he was a member of the Montagnard and member of the Committee of Public Safety ​ Assassinated in his bathtub by a Girondin sympathizer Marquis de Lafayette ​ Born into a remarkably high-ranking noble family and was educated at a prestigious school ​ He was enamored with enlightenment ideas and visited America during its revolution (friends with Washington) ​ Invited to the Assembly of Notables and was the leader of the National Guard, where he proposed the tricolore ​ Portrayed as someone against the people of France (National Guard opened fire against civilian)  ​ Was held captive during France’s war with Austria and was liberated by Napoleon Bonaparate, eventually dying of old age Jacques Hébert ​ Was a political pamphleteer (large following called Herbitists) and was widely outspoken for his “rude and crude” personality ​ Advocated for the peoples’ rights and spoke against the monarchy and the Church ​ His newspaper was very popular with the sans-culotte ​ He was a member of the Cordeillers and a member of the National Convention ​ Dedicated to the Cult of Reason and wanted Church temples to be transformed into sanctuaries of reason ​ Gained a lot of enemies and was eventually executed by Robespierre and his political opponents (he was too left leaning) Georges Danton ​ Born into the bourgeoisie (father was an attorney) and entered a seminary in his youth, where he defended against corporal punishment, later becoming a law clerk, a member of the royal council, and a commander of the National Guard ​ Created a militia to storm the Bastille, founded the Cordelier club, incited the Champ de Mars, participated in the attack on the Tuileries, petitioned to make France a republic, and supported France to wage war against Austria ​ Minister of Justice and Member of the Committee of Public Safety but eventually called for moderation before the Reign of Terror (opposed to it), leading to his execution ​ Womanizer, heavy drinker, glutton, displeasing figure (smallpox scars), frequently accused of stealing from the state 2024-11-18 - Revolutionary Figures, cont. Jacques Pierre Brissot ​ Pursued an education in Paris, studying law and literature, before working as a law clerk for the Paris parlement ​ When traveling to Britain and U.S. during times of revolution, he was exposed to republican ideas, which he supported ​ Member of the Legislative Assembly and advocated for the removal of Louis but not his execution (feared disunity) ​ Later became a deputy for the National Convention and led the Girondins ​ Wanted to declare war with other monarchies to spread revolutionary ideas ​ Executed during the Reign of Terror alongside 20 other Girondins, resulting in less representation of the people against Jacobin’s radical actions Charlotte Corday ​ Born into a minor aristocratic family and well educated ​ Sympathized with the Girondins and believed their moderate ideas would save France ​ Assassinated Marat in his bathtub ​ Immediately arrested and found guilty by the Tribunal before being guillotined four days later ​ Corday and Wollstonecraft (English) were both symbols of feminism during the Revolution Olympe de Gouges ​ Born into a bourgeois family and well educated, allowing her to engage with social issues concerning women’s rights ​ Wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Women, advocated for the abolition of slavery, publicly wrote against Robespierre ​ She was guillotined for her attacks on Robespierre and misaligning views with the Jacobins Jacques-Louis David ​ Was extremely gifted in art and attended the Royal Academy ​ Was the most famous painter of that period and the official court painter for Napoleon ​ He supported the Revolution (wanted to make money and was pragmatic - paired with any view that promoted his career) ​ Served in the National Convention ​ After Napoleon’s downfall, he was exiled but continued to paint How did the Jacobins end up dominating the political landscape? ​ Grew from holding 130 seats in the Legislative Assembly to 300 seats in the National Convention ​ How can a minority political party come to dominate the political landscape?  ○​ Convince citizens that they protect the interests of the people and not just themselves ○​ Prepared to use violence and other means, such as blackmail, to rid of any opposition (utilize fear) ○​ Deliver eloquent speeches and spread propaganda ○​ Centralize power for greater authority (Committee of Public Safety) ○​ Speak against opposing parties and their character (deceive citizens to mistrust adversaries) ○​ Blame others to avoid responsibility and still garner support ○​ Justify extreme policies because of unrest ○​ Catastrophize issues to appeal to citizens Foreign War and Increased Domestic Resistance and Repression ​ Things did not go well against the combined Austria and Prussian forces. By the summer of 1792, Lafayette had defected to Austria and it looked like Paris would be invaded. ​ September Massacres (Sept. 2-7, 1792) - called for by Marat and carried out by the sans-culottes. About 1,300 prisoners were murdered. ​ Battle of Valmy (Sept. 20, 1792) - 52,000 French troops defeated 34,000 Purssians, this success was followed by another French victory over the Austrians in the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) ​ The French now went on the offensive (Decree of Fraternity, November 19, 1792). Savoy and Nice were the first areas to be annexed to the new French State. ​ The First Coalition (formed between Mar. and Sept. 1792) - Britain, Holland, Spain, Piedmont, Naples, Prussia, Russia, Austria and Portugal create a loose anti-French alliance. France once again struggled militarily. ​ The Vendee Rebellion - Began March 1792 and lasted until 1796. Began in response to a conscription call for 300,000 troops (Levee en Masse - August 1793). France was clearly divided over the direction of the Revolution. 2024-11-20 Defining Genocide (1948) ​ Intent and the assumption of innocence is the foundation of our justice system ​ Genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part (quantifying), a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group: ○​ Killing members of the group, causing bodily harm, etc. ○​ Worst possible act that can be inflicted on other people ​ Gulag system installed by Stalin to “educate people to become good communists” ​ 3-4 million perished in Homodore, Ukraine in the 1930s ​ Atrocities can be perpetrated under the name of a liberal, democratic government Reign of Terror ​ President of the National Convention, an elected deputy from the Convention, was given a two week term and formed the executive branch (similar to the Governor General) ​ Since the president is futile in enforcing the laws, various committees are formed in the National Convention (similar to our parliamentary system) ​ During the Reign of Terror, a hierarchy of the committees emerges, with the Committee of Public Safety having the most power ○​ A group of 12 deputies led by Robespierre to dictate the policy of the Convention ○​ Same people who pass laws also enforce the law (no longer clear separation between executive and legislative branches - Montesquieu’s division of power) ○​ Becoming more of a dictatorship (similar to Louis’ reign and absolutism) ○​ Constitution is suspended during this period of war, further empowering the Committee The Reign of Terror (1792-1794) ​ Began with the attack of the Tuileries (August 1792) and included the September Massacres and ended with the execution of Robespierre and his supporters (July 1794). ○​ Girondins (republicans not royalists who had support from rural areas) were prepared to use violence against foreign enemies, whereas the Jacobins wanted to eradicate opposition within France The End of the Girondins ​ June 2, 1793 - 80,000 National Guardsmen surrounded the Convention and demanded the expulsion of the Girondins. Ultimately, 29 were arrested and executed. Shortly after the purge, Marat was assassinated. The consequences for deputies not supporting the Jacobins was clear. ○​ Girondins are becoming more demonized by the Jacobins and are then executed, allowing the Jacobins to execute Louis ○​ Fear and intimidation to kill opposition, and with Girondins gone, the Jacobin party also split into factions (Hebert - Jacobin left, and Danton - Jacobin right), but are eliminated by Robespierre  ​ With the purge of the Girondins, disturbances broke out in 60 of the 83 Departments; the provinces were generally opposed to the actions of the National Convention. ​ Maximilian Robespierre “the Incorruptible” joined the CPS on July 27, 1793. ​ For about the next 14 months, the Jacobins aided by their sans-culottes supporters carried out the deadliest period of the Terror. ○​ Marks the end of rule of law and the start of rule of force ​ You can trace how one by one potential opponents were attacked 1.​ The Catholic Church 2.​ The King 3.​ The King’s Supporters (the Feuillant) 4.​ Other countries 5.​ Regions within France (The Vendee) 6.​ Other republicans (Girondins) 7.​ It will end with the Jacobins destroying each other The Death of Marat by Jacques Louis David 1793 Jacques Louis David, The Death of Marat Video ​ Portrays Marat in the same manner of the Michelangelo Pieta 1498-99 (painting of deceased Christ in his mother’s arms) ○​ Marat is a martyred and is characterized as a role model for devout French citizens ​ Three prominent figures were martyred during the Revolution: Jean-Paul Marat, Joseph Chalier, and Michel le Petier de Saint-Fargeau The Origins of the Reign of Terror ​ Civil and foreign war generated fear and produced reckless violence. The Constitution was suspended throughout the time of the National Convention. ​ Democratic idealism encouraged the notion that the “mob” is always right even when it was obviously wrong. A pattern of violence emerged with those carrying out the violence benefitting in some way. ​ During open debates, there was a tendency for moderates to be shouted down and be accused of counter-revolutionary sentiments. Many stopped attending the Convention or supported the Jacobins against their conscience. ​ Little was done to prevent violence coming from the sans-culotte or the peasantry as these groups were seen to offer potential political support. ​ The Jacobins developed a political program that appealed to the most radical segments of the population. Politics became increasingly polarized and consensus and flexibility was seen as neither possible nor desirable. “Us” versus “Them” mentality. ​ Elimination of opposition was seen as necessary in order to produce security and stability, The idea that desperate situations require desperate measures dominated (emergency legislation had suspended the Constitution). 2024-11-25 Characteristics of the National Convention ​ Republic with unicameral legislature ​ An elected president forms executive branch ○​ Similar to UN ○​ President is weak and more symbolic ○​ Magna Carta (1215) and Bill of Rights (1688) restrict king ○​ Governor General is also symbolic from disuse ​ Committee of Public Safety take on the role of executive function ○​ Committed idealogues who eliminated any opposition ○​ Ratified by other deputies out of fear ○​ Not a clear division of power ​ Once violence is used in politics it must be continually perpetrated or else it will be used on you Committee of Public Safety’s Consolidation of Power ​ Created a private “elite” army that was directly at the command of the CPS (incentivizes violence, done intentionally by those in power). ○​ This was the Armee Revolutionnaire, which was made up predominantly of devoted sans-culottes (Gestapo in Nazi Germany, Cheka in Soviet Union, Stasi in East Communist Germany) whose key tasks were as follows: ​ Secure food for Paris ​ Round up counterrevolutionaries ​ Mobilize the nation’s resources, which often meant confiscation ​ Establish revolutionary justice in places that lacked revolutionary enthusiasm (south and west of France) ​ Passed laws that favoured their base (sans-culottes) ○​ Death penalty for hoarding food or other needed supplies. The law of the General Maximum was passed (Sept. 29, 1793). Prices of essential goods were set ⅓ higher than in 1790 and wages were set ½ higher than in 1790. ​ Limited the meeting of potential opposition ○​ In September 1793, the Convention passed a law restricting assemblies of the Paris Sections (these formed the political foundation for the Paris Commune) to twice a week. ○​ Restrict and criminalize freedom of expression for those who are critical of CPS (politicized blasphemy laws) ​ Destroyed through law separation of powers ○​ On December 4, 1793, the Law of Frimaire gave the CPS and CGS full executive powers. Agents nationaux (appointed by the CPS) were sent out to ensure revolutionary laws were being followed. In May 1794, CPS recommended that provincial revolutionary tribunals be shut down. All trials were to take place in front of the Paris Revolution Tribunal.  ○​ Established Revolutionary Tribunals (extra-judicial courts). These were special courts established to put dissidents on trial. The heads of these courts were loyal Jacobin supporters. ○​ Justified centralized power as God given (Louis) or people given (CPS) ​ Eliminated potential rivals within the Jacobin Party ○​ Jacques Hebert called for the extension of the powers of the provincial revolutionary tribunals to bring about greater economic equality and also urged greater measures to eliminate Catholic influence. This “left” opposition was eliminated on March 24, 1794 when Hebert and 18 of his supporters were executed. ○​ George Danton called for a relaxation of the Terror and release of 200,000 suspects. This “right” opposition was eliminated on April 5, 1794 when Danton and a number of his supporters were executed. “Show my head to the people it is worth seeing.” ​ Replaced Catholicism with a new secular religion ○​ In May, 1794, Robespierre asked for and was granted legislation prompting the Cult of the Supreme Being. This was a process of dechristianization. Churches became Temples of Reason (proposed by Hebert). New revolutionary calendar was introduced on October 5, 1793. Up to 30% of the 60,000 priests in France left the priesthood. ○​ Alienated Catholics throughout Europe and faced opposition from Catholics. ​ Passed laws to concentrate power in the hands of the CPS ○​ In September, 1793, the Law of Suspects was passed. The Law of Prairial was passed on June 10, 1794. This law was directed against the “enemies of the people,” which were broadly and vaguely defined. Trials required no witnesses nor evidence. The conscience of the jurors was able to guide them in determining the verdict. ​ Waged civil war against the regions that opposed them ○​ The regions that resisted most were the Vendee and areas around the Lyons and Marseille. About 250,000 died in civil conflict. The End of Robespierre, the End of the Revolutionary Commune, and the End of the Terror ​ Robespierre’s popularity among the sans-culottes gradually declined. ○​ Execution of the Hebertists, raising the Maximum on prices, preventing the rise of the Maximum on wages, Cult of the Supreme Being ○​ Received less support from sans-culottes (support base) ​ Coup of Thermidor - July 26, 1794 Robespierre rose in the Convention to attack deputies he believed were conspiring against the government. When asked to identify these traitors, Robespierre refused. Fearing for their lives, a number of Robespierre’s colleagues conspired against him. ​ On July 27, when Robespierre rose to speak in the Convention, he was shouted down and a vote was taken to arrest him. On July 28, Robespierre and 21 others were executed. ​ https://youtu.be/_plscSbrWts 2024-11-27 Progression of Governments ​ Absolute monarchy (Louis XVI) ○​ In theory, there are no checks (not in practice) ​ Constitutional monarchy (Legislative Assembly) ​ Republic (National Convention - CPS) ​ Republic (Directory) ○​ Attempts to restore checks and balances ○​ Considered to be most successful revolutionary government ○​ Right-sided ○​ Napoleon is one of world’s first dictator (modern) and used language/rhetoric of the time ​ Napoleon ​ Louis XVIII 2024-12-02 - Directory The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory ​ The Thermidorians were those who helped to overthrow Robespierre and the Jacobins. They dismantled the machinery of the Terror. The Thermidorians were republicans, not royalists. However, royalist sympathies grew during this period. ​ The risings of Germinal and Prairial ○​ Germinal (April 1, 1795) 10,000 marched on the National Convention demanding economic relief. They were dispersed by the National Guard ○​ Priarial (May 20, 1795) was an even larger demonstration and it too was crushed by National Guard troops loyal to the Convention. The radical phase of the Revolution was now clearly over. The sans-culottes were a spent force. ​ The White Terror - Took place in western and southern France throughout 1795-1796. ​ Verona Declaration (June 24, 1795) - Louis XVIII promised to restore the institutions of the old regime and threatened to punish all regicides. ​ The Constitution of the Year III (August 22, 1795) - This constitution gave birth to the Directory. ​ Vendemiaire Uprising (October 5, 1795) - 25,000 royalist sympathizers converged on the legislature. Napoleon Bonaparte opened fire on the crowd killing over 300 (“Whiff of Grapeshot”). The government had been saved three times in the past 6 months by the military. The Directory (1795-1799) ​ National Convention passed 2/3rds Decree, which stipulated that 2/3rds of the deputies will have seats in the new legislature ○​ In U.S., every two years 1/3rd of senators are replaced ​ A republican government ​ Afraid of resurgence of left and right sides of political spectrum (sans-culottes and royalists) ​ Established a bicameral legislature to restore checks and balances, consisting of the Council of 500 (lower house) and the Council of Elders (upper house) ​ All citizens (men over 21 who paid tax) could vote electors (very rich and required to pay taxes equivalent to 175 days of labour), who would select deputies ○​ Electors act as a check on the will of the people Legislative Branch ​ Council of 500 (500) ○​ Had to be over 30 ○​ Initialized legislation ​ Council of Elders or Council of Ancients (250) ○​ Had to be over 40 ○​ Can only accept or reject bills (cannot amend) ​ Both had a three year term Executive Branch ​ Consisted of 5 Directors picked from the legislature ​ U.N. has a similar system to nominate General Secretary ​ Council of 500 submits a list of names to the Council of Elders, who chooses a new Director ​ Every year a new Director is chosen with a five year term ​ Directors had no veto over legislation but controlled foreign affairs and military