Biological Macromolecules Exam Study Guide PDF

Biological Macromolecules Exam Study Guide I. What Are Biological Macromolecules? 🔹 Definition: Large organic molecules essential for life, including carbohydrates, lipids, 🔹 Monomers → The building blocks of macromolecules (e.g., amino acids for proteins).​ proteins, and nucleic acids.​ 🔹 Polym...

Biological Macromolecules Exam Study Guide I. What Are Biological Macromolecules? 🔹 Definition: Large organic molecules essential for life, including carbohydrates, lipids, 🔹 Monomers → The building blocks of macromolecules (e.g., amino acids for proteins).​ proteins, and nucleic acids.​ 🔹 Polymers → Large molecules made from monomers (e.g., proteins from amino acids). Key Elements Found in Macromolecules ​ C – Carbon ​ H – Hydrogen ​ O – Oxygen ​ N – Nitrogen (proteins & nucleic acids) ​ P – Phosphorus (nucleic acids) 💡How to Distinguish Similar Terms: ​ Monomer vs. Polymer: ○​ Monomer = single unit (e.g., amino acid, glucose, nucleotide) ○​ Polymer = many monomers linked together (e.g., protein, starch, DNA) ​ Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules: ○​ Organic → Contains carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds (e.g., glucose, proteins). ○​ Inorganic → Lacks C-H bonds (e.g., water, salts). II. Carbohydrates (Sugars and Starches) 🔹 Function: Provides quick energy and structural support.​ 🔹 Monomer: Monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose, fructose).​ 🔹 Polymer: Polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen). Types of Carbohydrates: 1.​ Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars) → Glucose, Fructose, Galactose 2.​ Disaccharides (Two Sugars Linked) → Sucrose (glucose + fructose), Lactose (glucose + galactose) 3.​ Polysaccharides (Many Sugars Linked) ○​ Starch (energy storage in plants) ○​ Glycogen (energy storage in animals) ○​ Cellulose (plant cell walls, fiber) ○​ Chitin (exoskeleton of insects) 💡How to Distinguish Similar Terms: ​ Glucose vs. Fructose vs. Galactose:  ○​ Glucose = main energy source (blood sugar) ○​ Fructose = found in fruits (sweetest sugar) ○​ Galactose = found in milk ​ Starch vs. Glycogen vs. Cellulose: ○​ Starch = plant energy storage ○​ Glycogen = animal energy storage ○​ Cellulose = plant cell walls (fiber, cannot be digested by humans) III. Lipids (Fats and Oils) 🔹 Function: Long-term energy storage, insulation, cell membrane structure.​ 🔹 Monomer: Fatty acids & glycerol​ 🔹 Polymer: Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Steroids, Waxes Types of Lipids: 1.​ Triglycerides (Fats and Oils) ○​ Structure: 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids ○​ Saturated fats → Solid at room temp. (e.g., butter, animal fat) ○​ Unsaturated fats → Liquid at room temp. (e.g., oils, fish fat) 2.​ Phospholipids (Cell Membrane Structure) ○​ Hydrophilic head (water-loving) + Hydrophobic tails (water-fearing) 3.​ Steroids (Hormones & Membrane Structure) ○​ Cholesterol (membrane fluidity, steroid precursor) ○​ Hormones (testosterone, estrogen) 4.​ Waxes (Waterproofing) ○​ Found in plants (leaf coating) and animals (earwax, beeswax) 💡How to Distinguish Similar Terms: 🧈 ​ Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats: 🫒 ○​ Saturated = Solid at room temp (butter) ○​ Unsaturated = Liquid at room temp (olive oil) 🧱 ​ Phospholipids vs. Triglycerides: 🔋 ○​ Phospholipids = make up cell membranes ○​ Triglycerides = store energy IV. Proteins (Muscle, Enzymes, Hormones) 🔹 Function: Cell structure, movement, transport, enzymes, immune response.​ 🔹 Monomer: Amino acids (20 types)​ 🔹 Polymer: Polypeptides (proteins) Examples of Proteins: 1.​ Structural Proteins: Keratin (hair & nails), Collagen (skin elasticity). 2.​ Enzymes (Speed Up Reactions): Amylase (breaks down starch), Pepsin (digests proteins). 3.​ Hormones: Insulin (regulates blood sugar), Growth Hormone.  4.​ Antibodies: Protect the body from pathogens. 💡How to Distinguish Similar Terms: ​ Protein vs. Enzyme vs. Hormone: ○​ Protein = General category (muscles, skin, enzymes, etc.) ○​ Enzyme = Type of protein that speeds up reactions ○​ Hormone = Type of protein that sends signals (e.g., insulin) ​ Keratin vs. Collagen: ○​ Keratin = Found in hair, nails, skin ○​ Collagen = Provides skin elasticity (prevents wrinkles) V. Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA) 🔹 Function: Store & transmit genetic information.​ 🔹 Monomer: Nucleotide​ 🔹 Polymer: DNA & RNA Nucleotide Structure: 1.​ Nitrogenous Base (A, T/U, C, G) 2.​ Pentose Sugar (Deoxyribose for DNA, Ribose for RNA) 3.​ Phosphate Group 💡How to Distinguish Similar Terms: ​ DNA vs. RNA: ○​ DNA = Double-stranded, stores genetic info ○​ RNA = Single-stranded, helps make proteins ​ Purines vs. Pyrimidines: ○​ Purines (A, G) = Larger, 2-ring structure ○​ Pyrimidines (C, T, U) = Smaller, 1-ring structure VI. The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Flow of Genetic Information: DNA → (Transcription) → RNA → (Translation) → Protein 💡How to Distinguish Similar Terms: ​ Transcription vs. Translation: ○​ Transcription = DNA → RNA (occurs in nucleus) ○​ Translation = RNA → Protein (occurs in ribosome) ​ mRNA vs. tRNA vs. rRNA: ○​ mRNA = Messenger RNA (carries info) ○​ tRNA = Transfer RNA (brings amino acids) ○​ rRNA = Ribosomal RNA (makes ribosomes)