Learning Units in Psychology PDF

LEARNING UNIT 1. Learning Overview Definition: A durable change in behavior or knowledge due to experience. Types: Humans and animals learn through: ○ Conditioning: Associating events in the environment. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Operant...

LEARNING UNIT 1. Learning Overview Definition: A durable change in behavior or knowledge due to experience. Types: Humans and animals learn through: ○ Conditioning: Associating events in the environment. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Operant Conditioning (Skinner) ○ Observational Learning (Bandura) 2. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Definition: Learning where a stimulus acquires the ability to evoke a response originally evoked by another stimulus. Key Terms: ○ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response (e.g., meat powder). ○ Unconditioned Response (UCR): Automatic response to UCS (e.g., salivation to meat powder). ○ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral; triggers a learned response after association (e.g., tone). ○ Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to tone). Process: UCS + CS repeatedly paired → CS alone elicits CR. 3. Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Definition: Learning where behavior is influenced by consequences. Key Figures: ○ Thorndike's Law of Effect: Responses followed by satisfying effects are more likely to recur. ○ B.F. Skinner: Focused on reinforcement to shape behavior. Key Terms: ○ Reinforcement: Increases behavior likelihood. Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., reward after a task). Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., turning off an alarm by waking up). ○ Punishment: Decreases behavior likelihood. Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., extra chores for bad behavior). Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus (e.g., taking away video games). 4. Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers: Satisfy biological needs (e.g., food, water). Secondary Reinforcers: Gain value through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise). 5. Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforce every response. Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforce only some responses. ○ Fixed-Ratio (FR): Reinforce after a set number of responses (e.g., reward after reading 10 pages). ○ Variable-Ratio (VR): Reinforce after a variable number of responses (e.g., slot machines). ○ Fixed-Interval (FI): Reinforce after a fixed time (e.g., paycheck every two weeks). ○ Variable-Interval (VI): Reinforce after varying time intervals (e.g., surprise inspections). 6. Processes in Conditioning Acquisition: Learning phase; response strengthened. Extinction: Gradual disappearance of a response when reinforcement stops. Stimulus Generalization: Response to stimuli similar to the original. Stimulus Discrimination: Differentiating between similar stimuli. 7. Avoidance vs. Escape Learning Escape Learning: Behavior stops an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., leaving a hot room). Avoidance Learning: Behavior prevents an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., staying away from hot areas). 8. Observational Learning (Bandura) Definition: Learning by observing and imitating others (models). Key Processes: 1. Attention: Observe the model’s behavior. 2. Retention: Remember what was observed. 3. Reproduction: Convert memory into action. 4. Motivation: Desire to perform the behavior. MEMORY UNIT 1. Three Key Processes in Memory Encoding: Forming a memory (e.g., learning a fact). Storage: Keeping the information in memory over time. Retrieval: Accessing stored information (e.g., recalling an answer). 2. Strategies for Enhancing Encoding 1. Elaboration: Connect new info to something you already know. ○ Example: Linking "photosynthesis" to plants producing energy. 2. Visual Imagery: Create mental pictures of what you’re learning. ○ Example: Visualizing a sun powering a plant. 3. Self-Referent Encoding: Make it personally meaningful. ○ Example: Relating the concept to your daily life. 3. Three Memory Stores (Information-Processing Theory) 1. Sensory Memory: ○ Holds sensory info for a few seconds. 2. Short-Term Memory (STM): ○ Limited capacity (~7 items) for about 20 seconds. ○ Can improve with chunking (grouping info into meaningful units). Example: Grouping a phone number into sections (123-456-7890). 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): ○ Unlimited capacity for storing info over a long time. 4. Working Memory (STM Model by Baddeley) Proposed by Baddeley (1986) as a more detailed STM system. Four Components: 1. Phonological Loop: Repeating info to remember it (e.g., rehearsing a phone number). 2. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Holding/manipulating visual info (e.g., mentally rotating an image). 3. Executive Control System: Focuses attention and plans actions. 4. Episodic Buffer: Combines info from STM and LTM. 5. Organizing Information in Memory  Clustering: Group similar items together (e.g., fruits, animals). Conceptual Hierarchies: Organize info into categories (e.g., mammals → dogs → poodles). Semantic Networks: Related concepts are connected (e.g., "butter" leads to "bread"). Schemas: Expectations based on past experiences (e.g., what you expect a classroom to look like). 6. How Retrieval Cues Help Memory Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help recall info (e.g., a smell reminding you of home). Context Cues: Being in the same environment helps recall (e.g., returning to a childhood home). 7. Memory is Reconstructive, Not Reproductive Memories are not exact copies but reconstructions. They can be altered or distorted over time. 8. Misinformation Effect Researcher: Elizabeth Loftus. Definition: Memory of an event changes after being exposed to misleading info. ○ Example: Witness recalling a red car as blue after hearing misleading info. 9. Measuring Retention 1. Recall: Retrieve info without cues (e.g., essay question). 2. Recognition: Identify info from options (e.g., multiple-choice). 3. Relearning: Learn something faster the second time. 10. Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference Proactive: Old info blocks new info. ○ Example: Calling a new friend by an old friend’s name. Retroactive: New info blocks old info. ○ Example: Forgetting an old password after learning a new one. LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT UNIT 1. Properties of Language Symbolic: Uses symbols (e.g., words) to represent objects, actions, or ideas. Semantic: Has meaning; words and combinations make sense. Generative: Limited symbols can create infinite messages. Structured: Rules govern how words are combined (syntax). 2. Hierarchical Structure of Language Phonemes: Smallest speech units (e.g., sounds like "b" or "p"). English has about 40. Morphemes: Smallest meaning units (e.g., "un-", "break", "-able"). Syntax: Rules for forming sentences (e.g., subject + verb). Semantics: Meaning of words and sentences (dictionary definition + emotional tone). 3. Key Milestones in Language Development 0–6 Months: Crying, cooing, babbling. Babies can distinguish all phonemes. 6–12 Months: Babbling mimics environment language. Start recognizing common words. 12 Months: First words, often simple (e.g., “mama”). 18–24 Months: Rapid vocabulary growth (e.g., 50 words at 18 months). ○ Overextensions: Using a word too broadly (e.g., calling all animals “dog”). ○ Underextensions: Using a word too narrowly (e.g., calling only the family dog “dog”). 24 Months: Combining words (e.g., “want cookie”). 3 Years: Complex sentences, plurals, past tense. 4. Bilingualism Advantages: ○ Better cognitive flexibility, reasoning, attention, and social skills. ○ May delay cognitive decline with age. Disadvantages: ○ Slower language processing and verbal fluency. 5. Theories of Language Acquisition Behaviorist (Skinner): Learn through imitation and reinforcement. Nativist (Chomsky): Born with a language acquisition device (LAD) for learning language rules. Interactionist: Language develops from biology + social interactions. 6. Problem Solving and Classes of Problems  Problem Solving: Efforts to achieve a goal not readily attainable. 3 Types of Problems (Greeno): 1. Inducing Structure: Finding relationships (e.g., analogies). 2. Arrangement: Rearranging parts (e.g., solving anagrams). 3. Transformation: Completing a sequence (e.g., river-crossing puzzles). 7. Barriers to Effective Problem-Solving Irrelevant Information: Focusing on unnecessary details. Functional Fixedness: Seeing objects only for their typical use. Mental Set: Sticking to past solutions even when ineffective. Unnecessary Constraints: Assuming rules that don’t exist. 8. Approaches to Problem Solving Trial-and-Error: Testing all options until one works. Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb. ○ Subgoals: Break the problem into smaller steps. ○ Analogies: Use solutions to similar problems. ○ Changing Representation: Rethink how the problem is presented (e.g., visually, verbally). ○ Incubation: Taking a break to find new solutions. 9. Decision-Making Heuristics Availability Heuristic: Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind (e.g., assuming plane crashes are common because of media coverage). Representativeness Heuristic: Judging based on similarity to a prototype (e.g., assuming someone with glasses is a librarian). Ignoring Base Rates: Overlooking actual probabilities (e.g., thinking librarians outnumber salespeople). Conjunction Fallacy: Believing combined events are more likely (e.g., assuming a dog will both dig and wander more often than just wander). Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing a bad choice because of past investment (e.g., staying in an unhappy relationship). 10. Dual-Process Theories of Thinking (Kahneman) System 1: Fast, automatic, effortless thinking (e.g., quick decisions). System 2: Slow, deliberate, effortful thinking (e.g., solving a math problem). Real-World Use: System 1 saves time but can lead to biases; System 2 is more accurate but slower. 11. Cultural Differences in Cognitive Styles  Eastern Cultures: Holistic thinking (focus on relationships and context). Western Cultures: Analytic thinking (focus on objects and individual properties). Why: Eastern cultures value group interdependence; Western cultures value individual independence.