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Chapter 1: Key Terms 1. Hypothesis: A proposed relationship among variables. An educated guess about how one thing affects something else ○ Example: If education funding increases, then student performance will improve. 2. Independent Variable: The agent of chang...

Chapter 1: Key Terms 1. Hypothesis: A proposed relationship among variables. An educated guess about how one thing affects something else ○ Example: If education funding increases, then student performance will improve. 2. Independent Variable: The agent of change in a hypothesis. ○ Example: Education funding, because it influences how much schools can provide. 3. Dependent Variable: What the analysis is trying to explain. ○ Example: Student performance, as it is influenced by the amount of funding the schools receive. Chapter 2: The State 4. Institutions: Rules and organizations that structure how society functions. Institutions create patterns of behavior that give order to society. ○ Example: Schools, governments, and legal systems are institutions that guide behavior. 5. Unitary System: A system where the central government has most or all the power. ○ Example: In France, the central government makes most decisions for the whole country. 6. Federal System: A system where power is shared between national and local governments. ○ Example: In the United States, states have some powers, and the federal government has others. 7. Power of Judicial Review: The power of courts to decide if a law is constitutional. ○ Example: A court can stop a law that violates the Constitution. Courts have the power to override Chapter 3: State and Society  8. Patron-Client Relations: A system where a powerful person gives rewards, like jobs, in exchange for loyalty. ○ Example: A politician offering a government job in exchange for votes. 9. Social Cleavages: Divisions in society based on characteristics like race, religion, or income. ○ Example: Rich versus poor or rural versus urban divides. 10. Rule of Law: The idea that everyone, even leaders, must follow the law. ○ Example: A president cannot break the law without consequences. 11. Merit-Based Bureaucracy: A system where people are hired based on skills and qualifications. ○ Example: Government jobs are given to the most qualified people, not as political favors. Chapter 4: Political Culture and Identity 12. Political Culture: The shared values and beliefs about government in a society. ○ Example: Believing in democracy or valuing individual freedoms. 13. Social Capital: The networks and relationships that help people work together in society. The ability of members of a group to collab for shared interets ○ Example: Neighbors helping each other build trust and support in a community. 14. Ethnicity: A group of people with shared culture, language, and history. ○ Example: People who identify as Hispanic or African American share an ethnic identity. 15. Nationalism: Strong loyalty and pride in one’s country. ○ Example: Celebrating national holidays like Independence Day. 16. Primordialism: The belief that identities, such as ethnicity, are deep-rooted and natural. ○ Example: Thinking ethnic conflicts are inevitable because people naturally belong to different groups. 17. Instrumentalism: The idea that leaders use identities for political advantage. ○ Example: A politician emphasizing ethnic divisions to gain votes. Chapter 5: Political Economy 18. Market Systems: Economies where prices and decisions are determined by supply and demand. Market systems exist where productive assets are privately owned and employed to earn profits for their owners. ○ Example: In a free market, businesses compete for customers. 19. Externalities: The unintended side effects of economic activities. ○ Example: A factory polluting a river is a negative externality. 20. Fiscal Policy: Government decisions on taxes and spending to influence the economy. Government make Fiscal Policy which uses the budges, and revenues toi manage the overall demand in economy ○ Example: Cutting taxes to boost economic growth. 21. Budget Deficit: When the government spends more money than it takes in through taxes. ○ Example: Borrowing money to cover the difference. 22. Budget Surplus: When the government collects more money than it spends. ○ Example: Having extra money left over after covering expenses. 23. Monetary Policy: The control of money supply and interest rates to influence the economy. Policy through which governemtn manage the money supploy in order to influence interest rates. stability/growth in economy ○ Example: Lowering interest rates to encourage borrowing and spending. 24. Globalization: The increasing interconnectedness of economies and cultures around the world. Refers to the greater integration and worldwide exchange of ideas, goods, currencies and culture. ○ Example: Buying products made in another country or working with people in different time zones. 25. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): When a company invests in or buys a business in another country. ○ Example: A U.S. company opening a factory in China. Chapter 6: Authoritarianism 26. Authoritarianism: A political system where power is concentrated in the hands of a few, with little input from citizens.  ○ Example: North Korea’s government controls most aspects of life. 27. Coup d'état: the forceful seizure of control of the state from civilian leaders by military officers. ○ Example: Military leaders take control of a government in a coup. Chapter 7: Democratization 28. First Wave of Democratization: The spread of democracy starting with the American and French Revolutions in the 18th century. ○ Example: The US and parts of Europe began expanding voting rights. 29. Second Wave of Democratization: After World War II, many countries, especially in Europe, adopted democratic systems. ○ Example: Germany and Japan became democracies after WWII. 30. Third Wave of Democratization: Starting in the 1970s, many countries in Latin America, Eastern Europe, and Asia moved toward democracy. ○ Example: The fall of dictatorships in Latin America and Eastern Europe. 31. Gridlock: When government cannot pass laws because of disagreement between branches or parties. ○ Example: The U.S. Congress and President disagree on major laws, leading to inaction. 32. “Winner-take-all” Rules: Electoral systems where the candidate with the most votes wins everything. ○ Example: In the U.S., the candidate with the most votes in a district wins that seat. 33. Proportional Representation Rules: Electoral systems where parties receive seats based on the percentage of votes they receive. ○ Example: In Sweden, a party that gets 20% of the vote would get 20% of the seats. 34. Double-Ballot Elections: Elections where a second round is held if no candidate wins a majority in the first round. ○ Example: In France, if no candidate wins more than 50% of the vote, the top two go to a run-off election. Fukuyama’s Chapters 27 & 28  35. Bourgeoisie: The middle class that owns property and businesses and is typically in favor of democracy. ○ Example: People who run businesses and want laws to protect their rights. 36. Proletariat: The working class who sell their labor and often demand more rights and democracy. ○ Example: Factory workers fighting for better wages and voting rights. Chapter 1: Comparative Politics and the Good Society What are the four criteria the textbook uses in assessing the degree to which a society provides citizens the means to enjoy fulfilling lives? 1. Security: People need to feel safe from violence and crime. 2. Liberty: Citizens must have personal freedoms and the right to participate in politics. 3. Equality: There should be fairness in opportunities and treatment under the law. 4. Welfare: Basic needs, like education and healthcare, should be met to ensure well-being. Chapter 2: The State What’s the difference between a government and the state? State: The larger system of institutions that runs a country, which doesn’t change easily (like the army, police, laws). Government: The group of people temporarily running the state (elected leaders), which can change during elections. What gives an actor political power? Political power comes from having control over decision-making and laws (like being in charge of a government). What gives an actor economic power?  Economic power comes from wealth or control over resources (like owning a company). What gives an actor cultural power? Cultural power is the influence one has over beliefs, values, or public opinion (like celebrities or religious leaders). What is the difference between unitary systems and federal systems? Unitary system: Power is held by one central government (like in the UK). Federal system: Power is shared between a central government and smaller local governments (like in the US). Chapter 3: State and Society Which electoral rules tend to lead to two-party systems? Winner-take-all or first-past-the-post systems, where the candidate with the most votes wins (like in the US). Why do such rules lead to two-party systems? These systems favor large parties because smaller parties find it hard to win if they don’t get the most votes. Which electoral rules tend to lead to multi-party systems? Proportional representation systems, where seats are given based on the percentage of votes a party gets (like in Sweden). Why do such rules lead to multi-party systems? They allow smaller parties to win seats even if they don’t have the most votes, encouraging more parties to compete. How do social movements differ from interest groups? Social movements: Large groups pushing for broad social change (like civil rights movements).  Interest groups: Organizations focusing on specific issues (like trade unions). Fukuyama: Chapters 1, 2, and 3 What is the difference between merit-based bureaucracy and clientelistic bureaucracy? Merit-based: Jobs are given based on skill and ability. Clientelistic: Jobs are given as rewards for political support. What necessary functions do bureaucracies perform? Bureaucracies enforce laws, collect taxes, and provide public services (like education and healthcare). Why would merit-based bureaucracies tend to perform those functions better? They hire skilled workers, so tasks are done more efficiently and fairly. Why might democracies often retain clientelistic bureaucracies for significant periods of time? Politicians may reward supporters with jobs to gain political loyalty, making it hard to switch to merit-based systems. Chapter 4: Political Culture and Identity What roles do social trust and social networks play in the formation of social capital? Social trust: People believing in each other helps build cooperation. Social networks: Connections between people help communities work together and achieve goals. How does constructivism differ from instrumentalism and primordialism in seeking to explain identity-based conflict? Constructivism: Identities are shaped by history and society.  Primordialism: Identities are deep-rooted and fixed. Instrumentalism: Leaders use identities for political gain. Chapter 5: Political Economy What are the advantages of market systems according to the textbook? Market systems encourage competition, efficiency, and innovation. What are the dark sides of markets according to the textbook? They can lead to inequality and may ignore environmental or social costs. What is the “race to the top” view of globalization? Globalization encourages countries to improve standards and compete in positive ways (like better wages and working conditions). What is the ”race to the bottom” view of globalization? Countries may lower standards to attract businesses, leading to poor wages and working conditions. Chapter 6: Authoritarianism What are the four different types of authoritarian regimes? 1. Military: The military controls the government. 2. Single-party: Only one political party is allowed to rule. 3. Personalist: One leader has complete control. 4. Monarchic: A royal family controls the government. What are the defining characteristics of each type? Military regimes use force to stay in power, single-party regimes ban opposition, personalist regimes revolve around one leader, and monarchic regimes are hereditary. What are the explanations of why authoritarianism still persists in the world after the Cold War?  Some countries have weak institutions, fear instability, or rely on foreign support for authoritarian regimes. What are the international explanations of continuing authoritarianism? External powers may support authoritarian governments for political or economic reasons. What are the domestic explanations of continuing authoritarianism? Local elites benefit from keeping power, and weak political opposition allows authoritarian regimes to survive. Chapter 7 and Fukuyama’s Chapters 27 & 28: Democracy Where did the first wave of democratization occur? In the US and parts of Europe after the American and French Revolutions. Which social classes historically were least favorable to democracy and why according to Fukuyama? The aristocracy and large landowners resisted democracy because it threatened their control over wealth and labor. Which social classes were most favorable to democracy and why according to Fukuyama? The bourgeoisie (middle class) and proletariat (working class) supported democracy because they wanted more political rights and protections for their property and wages. How does development of capitalism relate to the rise of democracy according to Fukuyama? Capitalism created a middle class that wanted a say in government and protection of their economic interests, which led to the demand for democratic reforms. What distinguishes presidential democracies from parliamentary democracies? In presidential systems, the president and legislature are elected separately (like in the US). In parliamentary systems, the legislature selects the prime minister (like in the UK). Why are presidential systems prone to gridlock? When the president and legislature disagree, it can be hard to pass laws. How do multi-member districts and proportional representation in Sweden affect the country’s party system (including the number of parties)? Proportional representation allows more parties to win seats, leading to a multi-party system. How do single-member districts and winner-take-all rules in the U.S. affect its party system (including its number of parties)? Winner-take-all rules favor two large parties because smaller parties rarely win in single-member districts. Essay Topic: How do unitary and federal systems differ, and what are their advantages? Example: In a unitary system like the UK, central power is strong, which makes decision-making faster. However, in a federal system like the US, power is divided between national and local governments, allowing local governments to address specific community needs. Each has advantages—central power can make quick decisions, but local control allows for more tailored policies. Essay Topic: Discuss the rise of democracy and the role of capitalism.  Example: According to Fukuyama, capitalism helped create democracy by fostering a new middle class (bourgeoisie) who wanted their property rights protected by law. As markets grew, more people demanded political participation, leading to democratization. In contrast, societies with large peasant populations tied to the land, like Russia, resisted democracy because of the elites who wanted to maintain control. Essay Topic: How do electoral rules affect party systems in different countries? Example: In countries like the US and Canada, single-member districts and "winner-take-all" voting rules encourage a two-party system because only the candidate with the most votes wins, making it hard for smaller parties to succeed. On the other hand, countries like Sweden with proportional representation allow for more parties to gain seats in government because parties win seats based on the percentage of votes they receive. Essay Topic: Why do merit-based bureaucracies perform better than clientelistic ones? Example: Merit-based bureaucracies focus on skills and qualifications, which leads to less corruption and better governance. For example, in countries like Germany, public servants are chosen through exams, ensuring that only qualified people make decisions. In contrast, clientelistic bureaucracies reward political supporters with jobs, often leading to inefficiency and corruption, as seen in many developing countries.