NURS 210 Chapter 1: The Human Body - An Orientation PDF

NURS 210 – Chapter 1: The Human Body - An Orientation 1. Homeostasis and Its Role in Normal Body Function ​ Definition: Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes. ​ Examples: Regulation of blood sugar, body temperature, and blood pressure. ​...

NURS 210 – Chapter 1: The Human Body - An Orientation 1. Homeostasis and Its Role in Normal Body Function ​ Definition: Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes. ​ Examples: Regulation of blood sugar, body temperature, and blood pressure. ​ Variables in Homeostasis: ○​ Blood glucose levels ○​ Body temperature ○​ Blood volume 2. Feedback Mechanisms Negative Feedback: ​ Definition: A process that reduces or shuts off the original stimulus. ​ Examples: ○​ Regulation of body temperature (via sweating/shivering) ○​ Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (pancreas secretes insulin to lower blood sugar) Positive Feedback: ​ Definition: A process that enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus. ​ Examples: ○​ Labor contractions (oxytocin increases contractions) ○​ Blood clotting (platelet aggregation speeds up clot formation) 3. Components of a Feedback Loop ​ Receptor (Sensor): Monitors environment and responds to stimuli. ​ Control Center: Determines set point, processes information from receptor, and sends instructions. ​ Effector: Carries out the response (e.g., muscle shivering or glands secreting hormones). 4. Levels of Structural Organization 1.​ Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules 2.​ Cellular Level: Cells and organelles 3.​ Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells (e.g., epithelial tissue) 4.​ Organ Level: Two or more types of tissues (e.g., heart, stomach) 5.​ Organ System Level: Organs working together (e.g., digestive system) 6.​ Organismal Level: The whole body Body Systems & Functions ​ Integumentary System: Skin, protection, vitamin D production. ​ Skeletal System: Bones, structure, movement, blood cell production. ​ Muscular System: Movement, posture, heat production. ​ Nervous System: Fast control, communication via electrical signals. ​ Endocrine System: Hormonal regulation, slower control. ​ Cardiovascular System: Circulates blood, oxygen, and nutrients. ​ Lymphatic System: Immunity, fluid balance. ​ Respiratory System: Oxygen intake, carbon dioxide removal. ​ Digestive System: Nutrient breakdown and absorption. ​ Urinary System: Filters blood, waste elimination. ​ Reproductive System: Produces offspring. 5. Anatomical Terms for Body Regions, Sections, and Positions Directional Terms ​ Superior (Cranial): Toward the head. ​ Inferior (Caudal): Toward the feet. ​ Anterior (Ventral): Front of the body. ​ Posterior (Dorsal): Back of the body. ​ Medial: Toward the midline. ​ Lateral: Away from the midline. ​ Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment. ​ Distal: Farther from the point of attachment. Body Planes & Sections ​ Sagittal Plane: Divides body into left and right. ○​ Midsagittal (Median) Plane: Equal left and right halves. ○​ Parasagittal Plane: Unequal left and right portions. ​ Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides body into front and back (anterior/posterior).  ​ Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: Divides body into top and bottom (superior/inferior). ​ Oblique Plane: Diagonal cuts. 6. Body Cavities and Their Subdivisions Dorsal Body Cavity (Protects Nervous System) 1.​ Cranial Cavity: Contains brain. 2.​ Vertebral (Spinal) Cavity: Contains spinal cord. Ventral Body Cavity (Houses Internal Organs) 1.​ Thoracic Cavity: ○​ Pleural Cavities: Each contains a lung. ○​ Mediastinum: Contains pericardial cavity, esophagus, trachea. ○​ Pericardial Cavity: Contains heart. 2.​ Abdominopelvic Cavity: ○​ Abdominal Cavity: Stomach, intestines, liver, spleen. ○​ Pelvic Cavity: Urinary bladder, reproductive organs. Membranes in the Ventral Body Cavity ​ Serous Membrane (Serosa): Thin, double-layered membranes that cover organs. ○​ Parietal Serosa: Lines cavity walls. ○​ Visceral Serosa: Covers organs. ○​ Serous Fluid: Lubricates layers. Abdominopelvic Quadrants & Regions Four Quadrants ​ Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) ​ Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) ​ Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) ​ Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) Nine Regions 1.​ Right Hypochondriac - Liver, gallbladder 2.​ Epigastric - Stomach 3.​ Left Hypochondriac - Spleen, stomach 4.​ Right Lumbar - Ascending colon 5.​ Umbilical - Small intestine 6.​ Left Lumbar - Descending colon  7.​ Right Iliac (Inguinal) - Appendix 8.​ Hypogastric (Pubic) - Bladder 9.​ Left Iliac (Inguinal) - Sigmoid colon NURS 210 – Chapter 3: Cells - The Living Units 1. Functions & Structure of the Plasma Membrane ​ Functions of the Plasma Membrane: ○​ Physical barrier: Separates intracellular and extracellular environments. ○​ Selective permeability: Regulates movement of substances. ○​ Communication: Receptors allow cell signaling. ○​ Cell recognition: Glycoproteins aid in identification. ​ Structure of the Plasma Membrane: ○​ Phospholipid bilayer: Hydrophilic heads face water, hydrophobic tails face inward. ○​ Membrane proteins: ​ Integral (transmembrane) proteins: Span the membrane; transport & signaling. ​ Peripheral proteins: Attach to membrane surface; structural support & signaling. ○​ Cholesterol: Maintains membrane fluidity and stability. ○​ Glycocalyx: Cell recognition & protection. 2. Diffusion & Osmosis in Physiological Systems ​ Diffusion: Passive movement of molecules from high to low concentration. ○​ Simple diffusion: Direct passage through the membrane (O₂, CO₂). ○​ Facilitated diffusion: Requires transport proteins (e.g., glucose, ions). ​ Channel-mediated: Ions pass through protein channels. ​ Carrier-mediated: Specific molecules are transported via carrier proteins. ​ Osmosis: Passive movement of water from high to low concentration across a semipermeable membrane. ​ Tonicity (Effects on Cells): ○​ Isotonic solution: Equal solute concentration; no net water movement. ○​ Hypertonic solution: Higher solute outside cell → Water moves out, causing shrinkage (crenation). ○​ Hypotonic solution: Lower solute outside cell → Water moves in, causing swelling or lysis (bursting). 3. Carrier-Mediated & Vesicular Transport ​ Passive Transport: No ATP required. ○​ Simple & facilitated diffusion, osmosis. ​ Active Transport: ATP required. ○​ Primary Active Transport: Uses ATP directly (e.g., Na⁺/K⁺ pump). ○​ Secondary Active Transport: Uses energy from ion gradients. ​ Symport: Two substances move in the same direction. ​ Antiport: Two substances move in opposite directions. ​ Vesicular Transport: Uses vesicles for large molecule transport. ○​ Endocytosis: Bringing substances into the cell. ​ Phagocytosis: “Cell eating” (engulfing large particles). ​ Pinocytosis: “Cell drinking” (engulfing extracellular fluid). ○​ Exocytosis: Releasing substances out of the cell. ○​ Transcytosis: Moving substances through the cell. 4. Cell Organelles & Their Functions ​ Cytoskeleton: Provides shape & support. ​ Centrosome/Centrioles: Organize mitotic spindle. ​ Cilia & Flagella: Movement of fluid or the cell itself. ​ Ribosomes: Protein synthesis. ​ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): ○​ Rough ER: Synthesizes proteins (contains ribosomes). ○​ Smooth ER: Lipid production, detoxification. ​ Golgi Complex: Packages & modifies proteins for export. ​ Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for waste breakdown. ​ Peroxisomes: Detoxification (breaks down hydrogen peroxide). ​ Proteasomes: Degrade faulty or unneeded proteins. ​ Mitochondria: ATP production (powerhouse of the cell). ​ Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA). 5. Cell Nucleus & Genetic Code ​ Nucleus: Controls cell activities, stores DNA. ​ Chromosomes: DNA organized into 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). ​ Genetic Code: DNA contains instructions for protein synthesis. 6. Cell Life Cycle ​ Interphase: Cell grows, DNA replicates. ○​ G1 phase: Growth, preparation for DNA replication. ○​ S phase: DNA replication. ○​ G2 phase: Final preparation for mitosis. ​ Mitosis: Division of nucleus. ○​ Prophase: Chromatin condenses, nuclear envelope disappears. ○​ Metaphase: Chromosomes align at center. ○​ Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate. ○​ Telophase: New nuclei form. ​ Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm → Two identical daughter cells. 7. Mitosis vs. Meiosis ​ Mitosis: Produces two identical diploid daughter cells. ​ Meiosis: Produces four non-identical haploid gametes. NURS 210 – Chapter 4: Tissues - The Living Fabric 1. Four Major Tissue Types & Their Functions 1.​ Epithelial Tissue – Covers and lines body surfaces. ○​ Functions: Protection, absorption, filtration, secretion. 2.​ Connective Tissue – Provides support and structure. ○​ Functions: Binding, support, protection, insulation, transport (blood). 3.​ Muscle Tissue – Allows for movement. ○​ Functions: Contraction and movement of body structures. 4.​ Nervous Tissue – Facilitates communication. ○​ Functions: Transmits electrical signals for body function regulation. 2. Classification & Function of Epithelial Tissue ​ Characteristics: 1.​ Polarity: Apical (free) and basal (attached) surfaces.  2.​ Specialized Contacts: Cells tightly packed. 3.​ Avascular but Innervated: Lacks blood supply but has nerves. 4.​ Regeneration: Rapid cell replacement. ​ Types of Epithelial Tissue: 1.​ Simple Epithelium (Single Layer) ​ Simple Squamous: Thin, allows diffusion (e.g., lungs, blood vessels). ​ Simple Cuboidal: Secretion & absorption (e.g., kidney tubules, glands). ​ Simple Columnar: Absorption & secretion (e.g., digestive tract). ​ Pseudostratified Columnar: Appears multilayered; secretion (e.g., respiratory tract). 2.​ Stratified Epithelium (Multiple Layers) ​ Stratified Squamous: Protects against abrasion (e.g., skin, mouth). ​ Stratified Cuboidal & Columnar: Rare; found in glands. ​ Transitional Epithelium: Stretches (e.g., bladder). 3. Glandular Epithelium ​ Endocrine Glands: Ductless, secrete hormones into blood. ​ Exocrine Glands: Use ducts, secrete onto surfaces (e.g., sweat, oil glands). ​ Modes of Secretion: ○​ Merocrine: Secretes via exocytosis (e.g., sweat glands). ○​ Holocrine: Entire cell ruptures (e.g., sebaceous glands). ○​ Apocrine: Only the top of the cell sheds (e.g., controversial in humans). 4. Connective Tissue: General Structure & Function ​ Components of Connective Tissue: 1.​ Ground Substance: Fills spaces between cells. 2.​ Fibers: ​ Collagen: Strong, resists tension. ​ Elastic: Allows for stretch and recoil. ​ Reticular: Supports soft organs. 3.​ Cells: Fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts, adipocytes. ​ Types of Connective Tissue: 1.​ Loose Connective Tissue: ​ Areolar: Cushion organs. ​ Adipose: Stores fat for energy. ​ Reticular: Supports immune organs. 2.​ Dense Connective Tissue:  ​ Dense Regular: Parallel fibers, strong (e.g., tendons). ​ Dense Irregular: Fibers in multiple directions (e.g., skin). ​ Elastic: Allows stretch (e.g., arteries). 5. Bone & Cartilage ​ Bone (Osseous Tissue): ○​ Supports, protects, stores calcium. ○​ Highly vascularized. ○​ Contains osteoblasts (building) and osteoclasts (breaking down). ​ Cartilage (Avascular, Heals Slowly): ○​ Hyaline Cartilage: Most common; found in joints, nose. ○​ Elastic Cartilage: Flexible; found in ears. ○​ Fibrocartilage: Strongest; found in intervertebral discs. 6. Muscle Tissue: Types & Locations ​ Skeletal Muscle: Striated, voluntary, attached to bones. ​ Cardiac Muscle: Striated, involuntary, found in heart. ​ Smooth Muscle: Non-striated, involuntary, found in walls of organs. 7. Nervous Tissue ​ Neurons: Conduct impulses. ​ Neuroglia: Support and protect neurons. ​ Function: Transmit signals for body communication. 8. Body Membranes ​ Cutaneous Membrane (Skin): Dry, outer protective layer. ​ Mucous Membrane: Lines body cavities open to exterior (e.g., digestive, respiratory). ​ Serous Membrane: Lines closed body cavities (e.g., pericardium, pleura). ​ Synovial Membrane: Found in joints, secretes synovial fluid. NURS 210 – Chapter 5: The Integumentary System 1. Functions of the Skin (Integumentary System) The skin is the largest organ in the body and serves multiple functions: ​ Protection – Acts as a barrier against infections, dehydration, and UV radiation. ​ Thermoregulation – Regulates body temperature through sweat glands and blood vessel dilation/constriction. ​ Cutaneous Sensation – Contains sensory receptors for touch, temperature, pain, and pressure. ​ Metabolic Functions – Synthesizes Vitamin D for calcium absorption. ​ Blood Reservoir – Stores up to 5% of total blood volume. ​ Excretion – Eliminates waste through sweat. 2. Structure of the Skin The skin consists of three layers: 1.​ Epidermis – Outer layer, made of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. 2.​ Dermis – Middle layer, made of connective tissue (contains blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands). 3.​ Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer) – Deepest layer, mostly adipose tissue, not technically part of the skin. 3. Epidermis: Layers & Cells Layers of the Epidermis (Superficial to Deep) 1.​ Stratum Corneum – Thick, dead, keratinized cells protect against water loss. 2.​ Stratum Lucidum (Only in thick skin) – Found in palms and soles. 3.​ Stratum Granulosum – Keratinization begins. 4.​ Stratum Spinosum – Cells connected by desmosomes. 5.​ Stratum Basale – Deepest layer, contains melanocytes and stem cells. Cells of the Epidermis  ​ Keratinocytes – Produce keratin for strength and waterproofing. ​ Melanocytes – Produce melanin, which protects against UV radiation. ​ Langerhans (Dendritic) Cells – Immune system defense. ​ Merkel (Tactile) Cells – Sensory receptors for touch. 4. Skin Color & Pigments Three main pigments contribute to skin color: 1.​ Melanin – Yellow, brown, black; produced by melanocytes in response to UV exposure. 2.​ Carotene – Yellow-orange pigment stored in stratum corneum and fat tissue. 3.​ Hemoglobin – Red pigment in blood that gives pinkish hue to fair skin. Skin Color & Clinical Conditions: ​ Pallor (Pale skin) – Low blood flow or anemia. ​ Erythema (Redness) – Increased blood flow (fever, inflammation). ​ Jaundice (Yellow skin) – Liver disease (excess bilirubin). ​ Cyanosis (Blue skin) – Lack of oxygen. 5. Dermis: Structure & Layers The dermis contains fibroblasts, macrophages, nerves, blood vessels, hair follicles, and glands. Layers of the Dermis 1.​ Papillary Layer (Superficial) ○​ Loose areolar connective tissue. ○​ Contains dermal papillae (finger-like projections) that create fingerprints. ○​ Contains Meissner’s corpuscles (touch receptors). 2.​ Reticular Layer (Deep) ○​ Dense irregular connective tissue. ○​ Contains collagen & elastic fibers for strength and flexibility. ○​ Houses blood vessels, sweat glands, hair follicles. 6. Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer) ​ Composed of adipose tissue for insulation & energy storage. ​ Anchors skin to muscles. 7. Hair & Nails Hair (Pili) ​ Function: Protects from heat loss, UV exposure, & foreign particles. ​ Structure: ○​ Shaft – Part visible above skin. ○​ Root – Embedded in skin. ○​ Hair bulb – Contains hair matrix, where growth occurs. ​ Arrector pili muscle – Causes goosebumps. Nails ​ Modified epidermis, made of hard keratin. ​ Parts of the nail: ○​ Free edge ○​ Nail plate ○​ Lunula (white crescent) ○​ Nail matrix (responsible for growth). 8. Skin Glands Sebaceous (Oil) Glands ​ Secrete sebum (oil) for moisture and antibacterial properties. ​ Found everywhere except palms & soles. Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands ​ Eccrine Sweat Glands: ○​ Most numerous (especially on palms, soles, forehead). ○​ Function: Thermoregulation. ○​ Secretes water, salt, & metabolic waste. ​ Apocrine Sweat Glands:  ○​ Found in axillary & genital areas. ○​ Secretes milky sweat that smells due to bacteria. ○​ Activated during puberty. Ceruminous Glands: ​ Found in ear canal, produce earwax. 9. Skin Functions ​ Protection ○​ Chemical Barrier (Melanin, sweat, sebum). ○​ Physical Barrier (Keratinized cells prevent water loss). ○​ Biological Barrier (Immune cells protect against infection). ​ Thermoregulation: ○​ Sweat evaporation cools the body. ○​ Blood vessels dilate (heat loss) or constrict (heat retention). ​ Sensation: Skin contains sensory receptors for pain, temperature, & touch. ​ Vitamin D Synthesis: ○​ UV light converts cholesterol into Vitamin D, essential for calcium absorption. 10. Skin Aging & Disorders Aging Effects on Skin ​ Thinning epidermis → More injuries. ​ Reduced collagen & elastin → Wrinkles. ​ Decreased melanin → Gray hair. ​ Lower sebaceous gland activity → Dry skin. Skin Disorders 1.​ Stretch Marks (Striae) – Caused by rapid stretching of the dermis. 2.​ Acne – Overactive sebaceous glands. 3.​ Skin Cancer – Most common type of cancer. ○​ Basal Cell Carcinoma – Least malignant, most common. ○​ Squamous Cell Carcinoma – Grows rapidly, can metastasize. ○​ Melanoma – Most dangerous, spreads rapidly. 4.​ Burns:  ○​ First-degree – Epidermal damage (e.g., sunburn). ○​ Second-degree – Blisters, epidermis & upper dermis damage. ○​ Third-degree – Entire skin layer destroyed, nerve endings lost. NURS 210 – Chapter 6: Bones and Skeletal Tissue 1. Functions of the Skeletal System The skeletal system serves six major functions: 1.​ Support – Provides structural framework. 2.​ Protection – Shields vital organs (e.g., skull protects brain). 3.​ Movement – Acts as levers for muscles. 4.​ Mineral Storage – Stores calcium and phosphorus. 5.​ Blood Cell Formation (Hematopoiesis) – Occurs in red bone marrow. 6.​ Triglyceride (Fat) Storage – Occurs in yellow bone marrow. 2. Classification of Bones Bones are classified based on their shape: ​ Long Bones – Longer than wide (e.g., femur, humerus). ​ Short Bones – Cube-shaped (e.g., carpals, tarsals). ​ Flat Bones – Thin and curved (e.g., sternum, skull). ​ Irregular Bones – Complex shapes (e.g., vertebrae, pelvis). ​ Sesamoid Bones – Form within tendons (e.g., patella). Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton ​ Axial Skeleton – Skull, vertebral column, rib cage. ​ Appendicular Skeleton – Limbs and girdles (shoulders & hips). 3. Structure of a Long Bone ​ Diaphysis (Shaft) – Compact bone surrounding medullary cavity (contains yellow marrow). ​ Epiphyses (Ends) – Spongy bone, contains red marrow. ​ Metaphysis – Region between diaphysis & epiphysis.  ​ Articular Cartilage – Covers joint surfaces. ​ Periosteum – Outer layer with blood vessels & nerves. ​ Endosteum – Lines medullary cavity. 4. Bone Tissue Types Compact Bone (Dense) ​ Organized into osteons (Haversian systems). ​ Central Canal – Contains blood vessels & nerves. ​ Lamellae – Concentric layers of bone. ​ Lacunae – Spaces containing osteocytes. ​ Canaliculi – Connect osteocytes for communication. Spongy Bone (Trabecular) ​ Trabeculae – Needle-like structures, provide strength. ​ No osteons but contains lamellae & osteocytes. ​ Found in epiphyses & interior of flat bones. 5. Bone Cells & Their Functions 1.​ Osteoprogenitor Cells – Stem cells for bone formation. 2.​ Osteoblasts – Build bone; secrete osteoid. 3.​ Osteocytes – Mature bone cells; maintain bone. 4.​ Osteoclasts – Break down bone (bone resorption). 5.​ Bone-Lining Cells – Maintain bone matrix. 6. Bone Marrow ​ Red Bone Marrow – Produces blood cells (found in spongy bone of flat bones & epiphyses of long bones). ​ Yellow Bone Marrow – Stores fat (found in medullary cavity of long bones). ​ In adults, red marrow is limited to flat bones & proximal epiphyses of femur & humerus. 7. Bone Development & Growth Intramembranous Ossification (Flat Bones) ​ Develops from fibrous membranes (e.g., skull bones). ​ Steps: 1.​ Ossification centers form (mesenchymal cells → osteoblasts). 2.​ Osteoid is secreted & calcified. 3.​ Woven bone forms, creating trabeculae. 4.​ Compact bone replaces woven bone. Endochondral Ossification (Most Bones) ​ Replaces hyaline cartilage (e.g., long bones). ​ Steps: 1.​ Bone collar forms around diaphysis. 2.​ Cartilage in diaphysis calcifies, forms cavities. 3.​ Periosteal bud invades cavities → spongy bone forms. 4.​ Diaphysis elongates, medullary cavity forms. 5.​ Epiphyses ossify (hyaline cartilage remains at epiphyseal plate). 8. Bone Growth (Postnatal) Interstitial (Length) Growth ​ Occurs at epiphyseal plates. ​ Zones of Growth: 1.​ Resting Zone – Inactive cartilage. 2.​ Proliferation Zone – Rapidly dividing cartilage. 3.​ Hypertrophic Zone – Cartilage enlarges. 4.​ Calcification Zone – Cartilage calcifies. 5.​ Ossification Zone – New bone forms. Appositional (Width) Growth ​ Osteoblasts add bone matrix on periosteum. ​ Osteoclasts remove bone on endosteum. ​ Occurs throughout life. 9. Bone Remodeling ​ Continuous process replacing old bone with new. ​ Hormonal Control: ○​ Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) – Increases blood calcium (stimulates osteoclasts). ○​ Calcitonin – Lowers blood calcium (inhibits osteoclasts). ​ Mechanical Stress Control: ○​ Wolff’s Law – Bone grows in response to stress (e.g., weightlifting increases bone density). 10. Bone Fractures & Healing Types of Fractures 1.​ Nondisplaced – Bone retains normal position. 2.​ Displaced – Ends out of alignment. 3.​ Complete – Bone broken through. 4.​ Incomplete – Partial break. 5.​ Open (Compound) – Bone pierces skin. 6.​ Closed (Simple) – Bone remains inside. Fracture Healing Stages 1.​ Hematoma Formation – Blood clot forms. 2.​ Fibrocartilaginous Callus – Soft callus forms. 3.​ Bony Callus Formation – Spongy bone replaces callus. 4.​ Bone Remodeling – Compact bone reshapes fracture site. 11. Bone Disorders Osteoporosis ​ Bone resorption > deposition. ​ Risk Factors: ○​ Aging (postmenopausal women) ○​ Low calcium intake ○​ Lack of exercise ○​ Smoking ○​ Alcoholism  ​ Prevention: ○​ Weight-bearing exercise ○​ Calcium & vitamin D intake. Osteomalacia (Adults) & Rickets (Children) ​ Cause: Vitamin D or calcium deficiency. ​ Result: Soft, weak bones. Paget’s Disease ​ Excessive bone remodeling leads to weak bones. NURS 210 – Chapter 8: Joints (Articulations) 1. Functions of Joints ​ Joints (articulations) are points where two or more bones meet. ​ Functions: ○​ Provide mobility to the skeleton. ○​ Hold bones together while allowing movement. 2. Classification of Joints Joints are classified in two ways: A. Structural Classification (Based on the material binding bones) 1.​ Fibrous Joints – No joint cavity, bones connected by fibrous tissue. 2.​ Cartilaginous Joints – No joint cavity, bones connected by cartilage. 3.​ Synovial Joints – Has a joint cavity, allows for free movement. B. Functional Classification (Based on movement) 1.​ Synarthroses – Immovable joints (e.g., skull sutures). 2.​ Amphiarthroses – Slightly movable joints (e.g., intervertebral discs). 3.​ Diarthroses – Freely movable joints (e.g., knee, elbow). 3. Types of Fibrous Joints ​ No joint cavity, bones connected by dense fibrous connective tissue. ​ Mostly immovable. A. Sutures (Skull Joints) ​ Rigid, interlocking joints of the skull. ​ Allows growth during youth, later ossifies to become synostoses (immovable). B. Syndesmoses ​ Bones connected by ligaments. ​ Movement depends on fiber length. ○​ Short fibers: Little movement (e.g., tibiofibular joint). ○​ Long fibers: More movement (e.g., interosseous membrane between radius & ulna). C. Gomphoses (Tooth Joint) ​ Peg-in-socket joint. ​ Only example: Tooth in alveolar socket. ​ Connected by the periodontal ligament. 4. Types of Cartilaginous Joints ​ No joint cavity, bones connected by cartilage. ​ Not highly movable. A. Synchondroses ​ Bones united by hyaline cartilage. ​ Examples: ○​ Epiphyseal plates in children (eventually ossify into synostoses). ○​ Cartilage of first rib and sternum. B. Symphyses ​ Bones united by fibrocartilage (stronger & more flexible than hyaline). ​ Slightly movable (amphiarthrotic). ​ Examples: ○​ Intervertebral discs.  ○​ Pubic symphysis. 5. Synovial Joints ​ Freely movable (diarthrotic) joints. ​ Have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid. A. General Structure of Synovial Joints 1.​ Articular Cartilage – Hyaline cartilage covering ends of bones. 2.​ Joint (Synovial) Cavity – Fluid-filled space, reduces friction. 3.​ Articular (Joint) Capsule: ○​ Fibrous Layer – Dense connective tissue for strength. ○​ Synovial Membrane – Secretes synovial fluid. 4.​ Synovial Fluid – Lubricates and nourishes cartilage. 5.​ Reinforcing Ligaments: ○​ Capsular Ligaments – Thickened parts of joint capsule. ○​ Extracapsular Ligaments – Outside joint capsule. ○​ Intracapsular Ligaments – Inside capsule but covered by synovial membrane. 6.​ Nerves & Blood Vessels – Detect pain, monitor position & stretch. B. Additional Synovial Joint Features ​ Bursae – Fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction. ​ Tendon Sheaths – Elongated bursae that wrap around tendons. 6. Types of Movements at Synovial Joints A. Gliding Movement ​ One bone slides over another. ​ Example: Intercarpal & intertarsal joints. B. Angular Movements 1.​ Flexion – Decreasing joint angle (e.g., bending the elbow). 2.​ Extension – Increasing joint angle (e.g., straightening the knee). 3.​ Hyperextension – Extension beyond normal range (e.g., bending head backward). 4.​ Abduction – Movement away from the midline (e.g., raising arm sideways).  5.​ Adduction – Movement toward the midline (e.g., lowering arm to side). 6.​ Circumduction – Circular movement (e.g., shoulder rotation). C. Rotational Movements ​ Turning a bone around its long axis. ​ Medial Rotation – Toward midline. ​ Lateral Rotation – Away from midline. ​ Example: Rotation of humerus & femur. D. Special Movements 1.​ Supination & Pronation: ○​ Supination – Palm facing anteriorly (holding a bowl of soup). ○​ Pronation – Palm facing posteriorly. 2.​ Dorsiflexion & Plantar Flexion (Foot Movements): ○​ Dorsiflexion – Lifting foot toward shin. ○​ Plantar Flexion – Pointing toes downward. 3.​ Inversion & Eversion (Foot Movements): ○​ Inversion – Sole faces medially. ○​ Eversion – Sole faces laterally. 4.​ Protraction & Retraction: ○​ Protraction – Pushing jaw forward. ○​ Retraction – Pulling jaw back. 5.​ Elevation & Depression: ○​ Elevation – Lifting body part (e.g., shrugging shoulders). ○​ Depression – Lowering body part (e.g., opening mouth). 6.​ Opposition – Touching thumb to other fingers (grasping objects). 7. Types of Synovial Joints A. Plane Joints ​ Gliding movements. ​ Example: Intercarpal joints. B. Hinge Joints ​ Flexion & extension only. ​ Example: Elbow, knee, interphalangeal joints. C. Pivot Joints  ​ Rotation around a single axis. ​ Example: Atlas-axis joint (C1-C2), radioulnar joint. D. Condyloid (Ellipsoid) Joints ​ Biaxial movement (flexion/extension, abduction/adduction). ​ Example: Wrist joint. E. Saddle Joints ​ Greater movement than condyloid. ​ Example: Thumb (carpometacarpal joint). F. Ball-and-Socket Joints ​ Most freely moving joints. ​ Example: Shoulder, hip. NURS 210 – Chapter 9: Muscles and Muscle Tissue 1. Functions of Muscular Tissue 1.​ Producing body movements – Walking, running, posture. 2.​ Stabilizing body positions – Postural muscles keep us upright. 3.​ Storing and moving substances – Smooth muscle moves food, blood, and urine. 4.​ Generating heat – Muscle contractions produce heat (thermogenesis). 2. Three Types of Muscle Tissue 1.​ Skeletal Muscle – Voluntary, striated, attached to bones. 2.​ Cardiac Muscle – Involuntary, striated, found in the heart. 3.​ Smooth Muscle – Involuntary, non-striated, found in organs (e.g., intestines). 3. Properties of Muscle Tissue 1.​ Excitability (Responsiveness) – Ability to respond to stimuli. 2.​ Contractility – Ability to shorten forcefully.  3.​ Extensibility – Ability to stretch. 4.​ Elasticity – Ability to return to original shape. 4. Muscle Attachments ​ Origin – Attachment to immovable bone. ​ Insertion – Attachment to movable bone. ​ Direct Attachment – Epimysium fuses to bone. ​ Indirect Attachment – Tendons or aponeuroses extend from muscle to bone. 5. Microscopic Structure of Skeletal Muscle A. Muscle Fiber Components 1.​ Sarcolemma – Plasma membrane of muscle fiber. 2.​ Sarcoplasm – Cytoplasm of muscle fiber, contains glycogen & myoglobin. 3.​ Myofibrils – Rod-like structures containing contractile proteins. 4.​ Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR) – Stores & releases calcium. 5.​ T-Tubules – Conducts electrical signals into the cell. B. Sarcomere Structure (Functional Unit of Muscle) ​ A-band – Dark band, contains myosin & actin. ​ I-band – Light band, only actin. ​ H-zone – Center of A-band, only myosin. ​ M-line – Middle of sarcomere, stabilizes myosin. ​ Z-disc – Marks boundaries of a sarcomere. 6. Muscle Proteins A. Contractile Proteins ​ Myosin – Thick filament, binds to actin for contraction. ​ Actin – Thin filament, contains binding sites for myosin. B. Regulatory Proteins  ​ Tropomyosin – Covers myosin binding sites. ​ Troponin – Binds calcium to move tropomyosin. C. Structural Proteins ​ Titin – Provides elasticity. ​ Dystrophin – Anchors myofibrils to sarcolemma. 7. Muscle Contraction Mechanism A. Sliding Filament Model 1.​ Myosin heads attach to actin. 2.​ Pulls thin filaments toward M-line (shortening sarcomere). 3.​ ATP binds to myosin, causing detachment. 4.​ Process repeats, leading to contraction. 8. Excitation-Contraction Coupling 1.​ Nerve impulse arrives at neuromuscular junction (NMJ). 2.​ Acetylcholine (ACh) is released → binds to receptors. 3.​ Action potential spreads along sarcolemma. 4.​ T-Tubules conduct signal to Sarcoplasmic Reticulum. 5.​ Calcium is released, binds to troponin. 6.​ Tropomyosin moves, exposing binding sites. 7.​ Myosin binds to actin, contraction begins. 9. Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) ​ Synaptic cleft – Space between nerve & muscle. ​ Neurotransmitter (ACh) – Released from neuron. ​ ACh receptors – Bind ACh, allowing Na+ influx. ​ Acetylcholinesterase – Breaks down ACh, ending signal. 10. Muscle Metabolism (ATP Production) A. Energy Sources for Contraction 1.​ Creatine Phosphate – Provides immediate ATP for 15 sec. 2.​ Anaerobic Glycolysis – Produces ATP without oxygen, creates lactic acid. 3.​ Aerobic Respiration – Produces most ATP (mitochondria, requires oxygen). B. Oxygen Debt & Muscle Fatigue ​ Oxygen debt – After exercise, extra oxygen is needed to restore ATP. ​ Muscle fatigue – Caused by low ATP, calcium depletion, lactic acid buildup. 11. Types of Muscle Contractions A. Isotonic Contraction – Muscle changes length. 1.​ Concentric – Muscle shortens (lifting weights). 2.​ Eccentric – Muscle lengthens (lowering weights). B. Isometric Contraction – Muscle contracts but does not change length. 12. Motor Units & Muscle Twitch ​ Motor Unit – A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. ​ Muscle Twitch – A single contraction in response to one stimulus. ​ Wave Summation – Increased force with repeated stimuli. ​ Tetanus – Sustained contraction. 13. Muscle Fiber Types 1.​ Slow Oxidative (Type I) – High endurance, uses oxygen (long-distance running). 2.​ Fast Oxidative (Type IIa) – Moderate endurance, sprinting. 3.​ Fast Glycolytic (Type IIb) – Short bursts, fatigues quickly (weightlifting). 14. Muscle Actions ​ Agonist (Prime Mover) – Main muscle responsible for movement. ​ Antagonist – Opposes movement. ​ Synergist – Assists prime mover. ​ Fixator – Stabilizes origin of muscle. 15. Cellular Respiration for ATP A. Glycolysis (Anaerobic) ​ Occurs in cytoplasm. ​ 2 ATP per glucose. ​ Converts glucose → pyruvate. ​ If no oxygen: lactic acid forms. B. Krebs Cycle & Electron Transport Chain (Aerobic) ​ Occurs in mitochondria. ​ Produces 32-34 ATP per glucose. ​ Requires oxygen. 16. Clinical Applications A. Rigor Mortis ​ After death, calcium leaks into sarcoplasm. ​ No ATP available to detach myosin heads → muscles stay contracted. B. Myasthenia Gravis ​ Autoimmune disorder – Body attacks ACh receptors, causing muscle weakness. C. Muscular Dystrophy ​ Genetic disorder – Lack of dystrophin, leads to muscle degeneration. 17. Muscle Fatigue & Recovery ​ Muscle Fatigue Causes: ○​ Low calcium levels. ○​ Lactic acid buildup. ○​ Low ATP availability. ​ Recovery Requires: ○​ Oxygen intake (oxygen debt). ○​ Lactic acid breakdown. ○​ ATP & glycogen replenishment. 📌 Section 1: Multiple Choice (20 Questions) 1.​ What is the definition of homeostasis?​ a) The ability of the body to function without external input​ b) The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes​ c) The process of increasing internal variability in response to stimuli​ d) The control of voluntary muscle movements 2.​ Which of the following is an example of negative feedback?​ a) Blood clot formation​ b) Uterine contractions during childbirth​ c) Regulation of body temperature​ d) Increasing milk production during breastfeeding 3.​ What is the role of the receptor in a feedback loop?​ a) Processes and integrates information​ b) Monitors changes and detects stimuli​ c) Generates the response to correct the imbalance​ d) Stops the feedback loop once homeostasis is restored 4.​ The control center in a feedback loop:​ a) Detects environmental changes​ b) Directly carries out the corrective response​ c) Determines the appropriate response based on input from receptors​ d) Is always located in the brain 5.​ The effector in a feedback loop:​ a) Detects the stimulus​ b) Processes the information​ c) Carries out the response to restore homeostasis​ d) Prevents further feedback loops 6.​ Which body system is primarily responsible for maintaining homeostasis?​ a) Endocrine and Nervous Systems​ b) Muscular and Skeletal Systems​ c) Digestive and Respiratory Systems​ d) Integumentary and Reproductive Systems 7.​ The correct order of the levels of structural organization is:​ a) Organism → Organ → Tissue → Cellular → Chemical​ b) Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism​ c) Cellular → Chemical → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism​ d) Organ System → Organ → Tissue → Cellular → Chemical 8.​ The body cavity that houses the brain is the:​ a) Thoracic cavity​ b) Cranial cavity​ c) Abdominal cavity​ d) Vertebral cavity 9.​ The ventral body cavity contains all of the following EXCEPT:​ a) Heart​ b) Lungs​ c) Brain​ d) Stomach 10.​The pleural cavity contains the:​ a) Heart​ b) Brain​ c) Lungs​ d) Liver 11.​The serous membrane surrounding the heart is called the:​ a) Pleura​ b) Pericardium​ c) Peritoneum​ d) Synovium 12.​Which plane divides the body into left and right halves?​ a) Transverse​ b) Frontal​ c) Sagittal​ d) Oblique 13.​Which anatomical term refers to toward the midline of the body?​ a) Lateral​ b) Medial​ c) Proximal​ d) Distal 14.​The right lumbar region of the abdominopelvic cavity contains which organ?​ a) Liver​ b) Ascending colon​ c) Appendix​ d) Stomach 15.​The hypogastric region contains the:​ a) Liver​ b) Bladder​  c) Spleen​ d) Heart 16.​The membrane covering the abdominal cavity is called:​ a) Pleura​ b) Pericardium​ c) Peritoneum​ d) Endothelium 17.​Which of the following is NOT a necessary life function?​ a) Reproduction​ b) Responsiveness​ c) Decomposition​ d) Growth 18.​The ability to sense and react to stimuli is called:​ a) Digestion​ b) Metabolism​ c) Responsiveness​ d) Excretion 19.​Which of the following organs is found in the left hypochondriac region?​ a) Appendix​ b) Gallbladder​ c) Spleen​ d) Urinary bladder 20.​What is the correct anatomical position?​ a) Standing upright, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward​ b) Lying down, palms facing downward​ c) Sitting with arms crossed​ d) Arms relaxed, thumbs inward 📌 Section 2: True/False (10 Questions) 21.​The pericardial cavity surrounds the lungs. (True/False) 22.​The anatomical position is the standard reference for body directions. (True/False) 23.​The dorsal cavity is larger than the ventral cavity. (True/False) 24.​The transverse plane divides the body into superior and inferior sections. (True/False) 25.​The peritoneum is the serous membrane that lines the thoracic cavity. (True/False) 26.​The epigastric region is superior to the umbilical region. (True/False) 27.​The spleen is located in the right hypochondriac region. (True/False) 28.​Positive feedback loops are the most common form of homeostatic control. (True/False) 29.​The nervous system plays a role in regulating body temperature. (True/False) 30.​The mediastinum contains the heart, trachea, and esophagus. (True/False) 📌 Multiple Choice Questions (30 Questions) Section 1: Plasma Membrane & Transport (1-10) 1.​ What is the main function of the plasma membrane?​ a) To provide energy for the cell​ b) To control what enters and leaves the cell​ c) To produce proteins​ d) To store genetic material 2.​ The plasma membrane is composed primarily of:​ a) Carbohydrates and proteins​ b) Phospholipids and proteins​ c) Nucleic acids and cholesterol​ d) Ribosomes and lysosomes 3.​ Which of the following describes integral (transmembrane) proteins?​ a) Proteins that are loosely attached to the cell membrane​ b) Proteins that span across the entire plasma membrane​ c) Proteins that store genetic information​ d) Proteins that break down waste products 4.​ Which type of transport requires ATP to move substances across the membrane?​ a) Simple diffusion​ b) Facilitated diffusion​ c) Osmosis​ d) Active transport 5.​ Diffusion is defined as:​ a) The movement of water from low to high concentration​ b) The movement of molecules from high to low concentration​ c) The movement of ions against their gradient​ d) The engulfing of large particles by the cell 6.​ A hypertonic solution will cause a red blood cell to:​ a) Swell and burst​ b) Shrink (crenate)​ c) Stay the same size​ d) Multiply 7.​ In a hypotonic solution, a cell will:​ a) Lose water​ b) Maintain equilibrium​ c) Swell as water moves into the cell​ d) Move ions out of the cell 8.​ Which of the following is not a type of passive transport?​ a) Simple diffusion​ b) Facilitated diffusion​ c) Osmosis​ d) Exocytosis  9.​ Endocytosis is a process in which:​ a) Cells release substances into the extracellular space​ b) Cells engulf materials into vesicles for internalization​ c) Water molecules diffuse across the plasma membrane​ d) Ions pass through channel proteins 10.​Which of the following is an example of vesicular transport?​ a) Osmosis​ b) Facilitated diffusion​ c) Phagocytosis​ d) Channel-mediated diffusion Section 2: Cellular Organelles (11-20) 11.​The control center of the cell, which contains genetic material, is:​ a) Mitochondria​ b) Ribosome​ c) Nucleus​ d) Golgi apparatus 12.​Which organelle is responsible for ATP (energy) production?​ a) Ribosomes​ b) Mitochondria​ c) Lysosomes​ d) Centrioles 13.​The rough endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for:​ a) ATP production​ b) Detoxification​ c) Protein synthesis​ d) Lipid storage 14.​The Golgi apparatus is responsible for:​ a) Producing ribosomes​ b) Modifying and packaging proteins​ c) Generating ATP​ d) Storing calcium 15.​Which organelle contains digestive enzymes that break down waste?​ a) Lysosome​ b) Peroxisome​ c) Mitochondria​ d) Nucleus 16.​Microvilli function to:​ a) Help with cell division​ b) Increase surface area for absorption​  c) Move substances across the cell​ d) Transport proteins 17.​Cilia are important for:​ a) Increasing cell surface area​ b) Moving substances across the surface of cells​ c) Storing genetic material​ d) Producing proteins 18.​The centrioles play a role in:​ a) ATP synthesis​ b) Cellular digestion​ c) Cell division (mitosis & meiosis)​ d) Transporting vesicles 19.​Which structure controls what enters and leaves the nucleus?​ a) Nuclear envelope​ b) Plasma membrane​ c) Endoplasmic reticulum​ d) Golgi apparatus 20.​The function of ribosomes is to:​ a) Break down damaged proteins​ b) Produce ATP​ c) Synthesize proteins​ d) Package and modify cellular products Section 3: Cell Cycle, Mitosis, & Meiosis (21-30) 21.​The three stages of interphase are:​ a) G1, G2, S​ b) Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase​ c) Cytokinesis, Mitosis, Interphase​ d) Prophase, Interphase, Telophase 22.​DNA replication occurs during which phase?​ a) G1 phase​ b) G2 phase​ c) S phase​ d) Mitosis 23.​Which of the following correctly lists the four phases of mitosis in order?​ a) Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase​ b) Metaphase, Prophase, Anaphase, Telophase​ c) Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Telophase​ d) Prophase, Metaphase, Cytokinesis, Anaphase 24.​Which phase of mitosis involves chromosomes lining up at the center of the cell?​ a) Prophase​  b) Metaphase​ c) Anaphase​ d) Telophase 25.​During anaphase, what happens?​ a) Chromosomes align in the center​ b) Chromatin condenses into chromosomes​ c) Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles​ d) Two new nuclei form 26.​Cytokinesis refers to:​ a) The separation of sister chromatids​ b) The division of the cytoplasm into two new cells​ c) The breakdown of the nuclear envelope​ d) The movement of vesicles 27.​Which of the following is not a difference between mitosis and meiosis?​ a) Mitosis results in two identical cells, while meiosis results in four unique cells​ b) Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, while meiosis occurs in gametes​ c) Mitosis involves two rounds of division, while meiosis has only one​ d) Meiosis introduces genetic variation, while mitosis does not 28.​Which of the following describes the chromosome number after meiosis?​ a) Diploid (2n)​ b) Haploid (n)​ c) Tetraploid (4n)​ d) Hexaploid (6n) 29.​Which phase of meiosis contributes to genetic diversity through crossing over?​ a) Prophase I​ b) Metaphase I​ c) Anaphase II​ d) Telophase II 30.​What is the purpose of mitosis?​ a) To produce gametes​ b) To create new body (somatic) cells for growth and repair​ c) To generate energy for the cell​ d) To transport proteins across the membrane 1️⃣ Question 3: Integral (Transmembrane) vs. Peripheral Proteins Missed Concept: The difference between integral (transmembrane) proteins and peripheral proteins. Plasma Membrane Proteins 🔹 Integral (Transmembrane) Proteins:​ ✅ Embedded throughout the membrane.​ ✅ Function as channels, carriers, or receptors.​ ✅ Allow substances to pass through the membrane (e.g., ion channels, transporters). 🔹 Peripheral Proteins:​ ✅ Attached to the surface of the membrane (inside or outside).​ ✅ Help in cell signaling, enzymatic activity, and structure stabilization.​ ✅ Example: G-proteins (used in cell communication). 💡 Memory Trick: Integral = Inside & spanning the membrane!​ ➡ Peripheral = Positioned on the Periphery! 2️⃣ Question 10: Vesicular Transport (Phagocytosis vs. Other Types) Missed Concept: Understanding phagocytosis and how it differs from other transport methods. Types of Vesicular (Active) Transport 🔹 Phagocytosis ("Cell Eating")​ ✅ The cell engulfs large particles (e.g., bacteria, debris).​ ✅ A vesicle forms around the material, bringing it into the cell for digestion.​ ✅ Performed by immune cells like macrophages. 🔹 Pinocytosis ("Cell Drinking")​ ✅ The cell takes in small droplets of fluid from the extracellular environment.​ ✅ Non-specific absorption of nutrients. 🔹 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis​ ✅ Uses receptor proteins to bind specific molecules before engulfing them.​ ✅ Example: Cholesterol uptake by cells. 💡 Memory Trick: ​ Phago = "Big Bite" → Engulfs Large Particles. ​ Pino = "Sip" → Takes in Fluids. ​ Receptor-Mediated = Targeted Transport!  3️⃣ Question 16: Microvilli vs. Cilia Missed Concept: Function of microvilli and how they differ from cilia. Cell Surface Structures 🔹 Microvilli ("Absorption Helpers")​ ✅ Increase surface area for better absorption.​ ✅ Found in intestinal cells to absorb nutrients.​ ✅ DO NOT move! 🔹 Cilia ("Movement Helpers")​ ✅ Move fluids along the surface of a cell.​ ✅ Found in the respiratory tract to clear mucus.​ ✅ Have a waving motion to move substances! 💡 Memory Trick: ​ Microvilli = Mini Fingers → Absorption. ​ Cilia = Tiny Hairs → Motion. 4️⃣ Question 19: Nuclear Envelope (Function in Nucleus) Missed Concept: Understanding the function of the nuclear envelope in controlling entry and exit of materials. Structure & Function of the Nuclear Envelope ✅ Double-layered membrane surrounding the nucleus.​ ✅ Separates genetic material (DNA) from the cytoplasm.​ ✅ Has nuclear pores that: ​ Allow RNA and proteins to enter/exit. ​ Prevent DNA from leaving the nucleus. 💡 Analogy: The nuclear envelope is like a security gate – allowing certain molecules in and out while protecting important genetic material!  5️⃣ Question 27: Mitosis vs. Meiosis Missed Concept: Key differences between mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis vs. Meiosis (Comparison Table) Feature Mitosis Meiosis Purpose Growth & Sexual repair reproduction Occurs in Somatic Gametes (sperm (body) cells & egg) # of 1 2 Divisions # of Cells 2 4 Produced Genetic Identical to Unique (genetic Makeup parent cell diversity) Chromoso Diploid (2n) Haploid (n) me # 💡 Memory Trick: ​ Mitosis = Makes Two Identical Cells (M for Mitosis, M for Maintenance). ​ Meiosis = Makes Unique Sex Cells (M for Meiosis, M for Making Babies).  6️⃣ Question 29: Crossing Over in Meiosis (Genetic Diversity) Missed Concept: Which phase of meiosis contributes to genetic variation? Crossing Over: Happens in Prophase I of Meiosis ✅ Homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material.​ ✅ Creates genetic diversity (no two sperm or egg cells are identical!). 💡 Why It’s Important?​ Without crossing over, offspring would be identical to parents instead of having a unique genetic combination! 💡 Memory Trick:​ "Prophase I = Partner Swap!" → Homologous chromosomes swap genes like a trading card exchange. 7️⃣ Question 30: Purpose of Mitosis Missed Concept: Why do cells undergo mitosis? Functions of Mitosis ✅ Growth: Helps organisms grow larger (e.g., from baby to adult).​ ✅ Repair: Replaces damaged or dead cells (e.g., healing wounds).​ ✅ Maintenance: Produces new cells to keep tissues functioning properly. 💡 Mitosis is NOT for reproduction in humans! That’s meiosis! 💡 Memory Trick:​ Think of mitosis as "Mitosis = Makes More Body Cells"! NURS 210 - Chapter 4 Practice Exam Multiple Choice Questions 1.​ Which of the following is NOT one of the four major tissue types?​ a) Epithelial​ b) Connective​ c) Muscle​ d) Skeletal 2.​ Which tissue type is responsible for covering body surfaces and lining cavities?​ a) Connective tissue​ b) Epithelial tissue​ c) Muscle tissue​ d) Nervous tissue 3.​ Which type of epithelial tissue is specialized for absorption in the intestines?​ a) Simple squamous​ b) Simple columnar​ c) Stratified squamous​ d) Transitional 4.​ Which of the following characteristics applies to epithelial tissue?​ a) Highly vascular​ b) Contain a large extracellular matrix​ c) Regenerates quickly​ d) Lacks cell junctions 5.​ Which of the following is a unicellular exocrine gland that secretes mucus?​ a) Goblet cell​ b) Salivary gland​ c) Pancreatic gland​ d) Mammary gland 6.​ Which type of gland releases its secretion by exocytosis without damage to the cell?​ a) Merocrine​ b) Apocrine​ c) Holocrine​ d) Endocrine 7.​ Which connective tissue type cushions and supports organs while providing a loose framework?​ a) Dense regular connective tissue​ b) Areolar connective tissue​ c) Adipose tissue​ d) Reticular connective tissue 8.​ Which type of cartilage provides flexibility and is found in the external ear?​ a) Hyaline cartilage​  b) Elastic cartilage​ c) Fibrocartilage​ d) Articular cartilage 9.​ Which type of muscle tissue is involuntary and striated?​ a) Skeletal muscle​ b) Cardiac muscle​ c) Smooth muscle​ d) Connective muscle 10.​Which type of connective tissue is known for strong, rope-like structures such as tendons and ligaments?​ a) Reticular connective tissue​ b) Dense irregular connective tissue​ c) Dense regular connective tissue​ d) Areolar connective tissue 11.​Which of the following is NOT a function of connective tissue?​ a) Protection​ b) Absorption​ c) Transport​ d) Insulation 12.​Which type of connective tissue has a liquid extracellular matrix?​ a) Bone​ b) Blood​ c) Cartilage​ d) Dense connective tissue 13.​Which connective tissue fiber is the strongest and provides high tensile strength?​ a) Reticular fibers​ b) Collagen fibers​ c) Elastic fibers​ d) Fibrocartilage 14.​Which type of membrane lines body cavities open to the exterior?​ a) Serous membrane​ b) Synovial membrane​ c) Cutaneous membrane​ d) Mucous membrane 15.​Which of the following connective tissues is avascular and heals slowly?​ a) Bone​ b) Cartilage​ c) Blood​ d) Adipose tissue 16.​Which type of connective tissue contains a large amount of triglycerides for energy storage?​ a) Areolar connective tissue​ b) Reticular connective tissue​  c) Adipose connective tissue​ d) Dense regular connective tissue 17.​Which muscle type is found in the walls of hollow organs?​ a) Skeletal muscle​ b) Cardiac muscle​ c) Smooth muscle​ d) Areolar muscle 18.​Which tissue type contains neurons and is responsible for transmitting electrical impulses?​ a) Epithelial tissue​ b) Connective tissue​ c) Muscle tissue​ d) Nervous tissue 19.​Which type of cartilage is found in intervertebral discs and is the strongest?​ a) Hyaline cartilage​ b) Elastic cartilage​ c) Fibrocartilage​ d) Reticular cartilage 20.​Which connective tissue structure allows epithelial tissue to attach to underlying layers?​ a) Synovial membrane​ b) Basement membrane​ c) Perichondrium​ d) Endothelium In-Depth Explanation for Questions 5 and 20 Question 5: ❌ Your Answer: (Incorrect choice)​ ✅ Correct Answer: (a) Goblet cell Explanation: ​ Goblet cells are unicellular exocrine glands that are found in the epithelial linings of the respiratory and digestive tracts. ​ They secrete mucus through exocytosis, which serves to trap dust, pathogens, and other particles while also keeping the lining moist. ​ They are called "goblet" cells because of their distinctive goblet-like shape, with a narrow base and wider top where mucus is stored before secretion.  Why Not the Other Choices? ​ (b) Salivary gland → A multicellular exocrine gland, not unicellular. ​ (c) Pancreatic gland → Also a multicellular gland, secreting digestive enzymes and hormones. ​ (d) Mammary gland → A specialized exocrine gland that releases milk, but it is not unicellular. Question 20: ❌ Your Answer: (Incorrect choice)​ ✅ Correct Answer: (b) Basement membrane Explanation: ​ The basement membrane is a thin, fibrous layer that connects epithelial tissue to the underlying connective tissue. ​ It provides structural support and acts as a barrier for the exchange of nutrients and waste. ​ It has two layers: ○​ Basal lamina – Produced by epithelial cells, it contains glycoproteins and fine collagen fibers. ○​ Reticular lamina – Contains collagen fibers that are secreted by the connective tissue underneath. Why Not the Other Choices? ​ (a) Synovial membrane → Found in joints; produces synovial fluid for lubrication. ​ (c) Perichondrium → Surrounds cartilage, not epithelial tissue. ​ (d) Endothelium → A specialized type of epithelial tissue that lines blood vessels and the heart but does not attach epithelial tissue to underlying layers.