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Study guide Chapter 8: Identity ★ Puberty and identity development ○ Fundamental biological, cognitive, and social changes ★ Possible selves: The various identities adolescents might imagine for themselves ○ PQ: Andreia is a 16-year-old girl who is not only active, and hi...

Study guide Chapter 8: Identity ★ Puberty and identity development ○ Fundamental biological, cognitive, and social changes ★ Possible selves: The various identities adolescents might imagine for themselves ○ PQ: Andreia is a 16-year-old girl who is not only active, and hikes twice a month but is also the most popular girl in her grade. From previous knowledge, this aligns with… ★ Future orientation: The extent to which an individual is able and inclined to think about the potential consequences of decisions and choices. ○ PQ: Chris, after careful thought of how he wants to gift his parents, plans for a trip for his girlfriend and him. ★ Self-conceptions: The collection of traits and attributes that individuals use to describe or characterize themselves ○ PQ: In response to “share a little bit about himself,” Nora uses a multitude of traits and attributes to describe herself. ★ Self-esteem: The degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about themselves. ○ PQ: Due to his (blank – which is self-esteem), being down, Kim has been feeling exceptionally down after getting his latest test. ○ Self-esteem becomes stable during adolescence – this doesn’t mean that it doesn’t change over time. ★ Sense of identity: The extent to which individuals feel secure about who they are and who they are becoming. ○ With graduation just around the corner, Imuk starts to feel less secure of who they are and what they might be becoming. ★ Changes in self-conceptions: ○ More capable of considering abstract concepts than children ○ More able to process large amounts of info. ○ More likely to use complex, abstract, psychological self-characterizations ★ Adolescents become able to distinguish betw. Their authentic and inauthentic selves. ★ False-self behaviour: Behaviour that intentionally presents a false impression to others. ○ PQ: Every day, Qya dresses herself from top to bottom, just so that she can fit in with the popular squad. ○ False-self behaviour is linked to increased depression and hopelessness. ★ The five-factor model: The theory that there are five basic dimensions to personality: ○ Extraversion ○ Agreeableness ○ Conscientiousness ○ Neuroticism  ○ Openness to experience ○ Both genetic and environmental influences on personal – environment becomes somewhat more important as people age. ○ As we get older, we increasingly come to see ourselves as others see us. ★ Self-consciousness: The degree to which individuals are preoccupied with their self-image. ○ PQ: every day, Ben dreads, and anxiously goes over his physical appearance before going to school ★ Self-image stability: The degree to which an individual’s self-image changes from day-to-day. ○ Heavily conscious of oneself’ self-image, Mina is constantly changing her mood, behaviour, and attitudes ★ Sex differences: ○ Boys’ self-esteem is generally higher than girls’ self-esteem ○ Girls who attend single-sex schools have higher self-esteem. ○ Sex differences are more pronounced among white and latinx teens - less pronounced among black teens. This could be because of the high concern for girl’s physical attractiveness. ○ Black teens usually have a higher self-esteem than white teens ★ Influences on self-esteem: ○ Being raised by loving, supportive parents and being accepted by peers enhances it. ○ When the approval of others has too much power, adolescents are at risk of self-image problems. ○ Self-esteem derived from peers, rather than teachers or parents, leads to more behavioural problems and poorer school achievement. ★ Erikson’s Theoretical Framework: ○ Believes that development involves moving through 8 psychological crises throughout a person’s lifetime. ○ Identity versus identity diffusion: According to Erikson, the normative crisis characteristic of the fifth stage of psychosocial development, is predominant during adolescence. Solving this lies in adolescents’ interactions with others. ○ Low self-esteem → Failure to seek social support → Loneliness. Which then leads… Loneliness → low self-esteem → failure to seek social support (it is a loop) ○ Erikson focused on 3 problems: Identity diffusion: The incoherent, disjointed, incomplete sense of self characteristic of not having resolved the crisis of identity. Mild or severe, disruptions in sense of time, work/school issues, and concerns over sexuality.  PQ: Drew, is facing multiple issues with her identity having just switched schools where people don’t know her, and other school issues. Identity foreclosure: The premature establishment of a sense of identity, before sufficient role experimentation has occurred. PQ: Kelysie, who just turned 16, is happy, and secure in her relationship with her boyfriend who she believes will be her life partner as they both strive to save up. Furthermore, agreeing that schools don’t teach useful information both strive to open up a business right after graduating. Negative identity: The selection of an identity that is obviously undesirable in the eyes of significant others and the broader community. PQ: After explaining her reasons to her partner, and friends, Lyoa summarizes that she believes she’d rather ★ The Psychoscoial Moratorium: ○ Psychosocial moratorium: A period during which individuals are free from excessive obligations and responsibilities and can therefore experiment with different roles and personalities. ○ It is important to establish a sense of identity – according to Erikson, loss of psychosocial moratorium means “lost potential.” ★ Identity status: The point in the identity development process that characterizes an adolescent at a given time. ○ Determine identity status: exploration in “depth” and commitment in “breadth.” ★ In identity status research, individuals are assigned 1 of 4 identity states based on their responses to questions: ○ Identity achievement: The individual has established a coherent sense of identity. ○ Moratorium: The individual is in the midst of a period of exploration. ○ Identity foreclosure: The individual has made commitments but without a period of exploration. ○ Identity diffusion: The individual does not have firm commitments and is not currently trying to make them. ★ Agency: The sense that one has an impact on one’s world. ★ Authoritative parents encourage individuals to assert their individuality but remain connected to the family. Authoritarian parents r the opposite ★ Studying identity development over time: cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies ○ Identity is generally not established before the age of 18 ★ Ethnic identity: The aspect of individuals’ sense of identity concerning ancestry or racial group membership. ○ Weakest among white youth  ○ White adolescents are less likely than Black, Latinx, or Asian adolescents to explore their ethnic identity or feel a strong commitment to it. ○ Little research has been done on adolescents whose identity is closely linked to their religion. ★ Ethnic socialization: The process through which individuals develop an understanding of their ethnic or racial background, also referred to as racial socialization. ○ It encourages adolescents to think positively about their ethnic heritage, which may lead to a stronger sense of ethnic identity. ★ Immigrant paradox: The fact, on many measures of psychological functioning and mental health, adolescents who have immigrated more recently to the United States score higher on measures of adjustment than adolescents from the same ethnic group whose family has lived in the United States for several generations. ★ Social contexts of minority adolescents often include the following: ○ Racial stereotypes ○ Discrimination ○ Mixed messages about identifying with the majority culture. ★ Discrimination has negative psychological effects: ○ Conduct problems ○ Depression ○ Poor sleep ○ Lower school achievement For example, Black boys are treated with suspicion more often than Black girls and black girls face interpersonal prejudices more than black boys. ★ Multidimensional model of racial identity: A perspective on ethnic identity that emphasizes 3 different phenomena: ○ racial centrality (how important race is in defining individuals’ identity) ○ private regard (how individuals feel about being a member of their race), and ○ public regard (how individuals think others feel about their race) ★ Institutional racism (also known as systemic racism), is a form of institutional discrimination based on race or ethnic group and can include policies and practices that exist throughout a whole society or organization that result in and support unfair advantage to some people and unfair or harmful treatment. ★ Multiethnic: Having 2 parents of different ethnic or racial backgrounds ○ Most common in the U.S.S ○ Many of these adolescents will then change their racial identity over time ○ More likely to have an ethnic identity that doesn’t match their classmate’s perceptions, which can cause distress and low self-esteem. ★ Gender identity: One’s sense of oneself as male, female, or transgender ★ Sexual orientation: Whether one is sexually attracted to individuals of the same sex, other sex, or both. ★ Gender-role behaviour: The extent to which an individual behaves in traditionally “masculine,” or “feminine,” ways. ★ Transgender: Having a gender identity that differs from the sex one was assigned at birth ○ Non-binary ○ Gender-fluid ○ Etc. ★ Gender intensification hypothesis: The idea that pressures to behave in sex-appropriate ways intensify during adolescence. ★ Autonomy: A psychosocial concert hat surfaces and resurfaces through the life cycle ○ Being autonomous involves being able to make independent decisions ○ 3 types: Emotional autonomy: The establishment of more adultlike and less childish close relationships with family members and peers. Behavioural autonomy: The capacity to make independent decisions and to follow through with them. Cognitive autonomy: The establishment of an independent set of values, opinions, and beliefs. ★ Older adolescents: ○ Don’t rush to parents when upset, worried, or needing help ○ Do not see parents as all-knowing, all-powerful ○ Their emotional energy is invested in other relationships ○ Older teens can see, and interact with parents as people ★ Detachment: In psychoanalytic theory, the process through which adolescents sever emotional attachments to their parents or other authority figures. ★ Individuation: The progressive sharpening of an individual’s sense of being an autonomous, independent person. ○ Beings during infancy ○ Who triggers it? Changes in adolescent’s appearance provoke changes in how adolescents view themselves and how parents view teens; this alters parent-adolescent interactions Cognitive development stimulates movement toward individuation. ★ Indicators of emotional autonomy: ○ Seeing parents flaws ○ Depending on self rather than on parents ○ Recognizing things about self that parents are unaware of ○ Increasing size of social networks ○ Possessing different beliefs from parents ★ De-idealization: Involves removing parents from their pedestals, 1st pieces of emotional autonomy, and doesn’t develop until adulthood. ★ Psychological control: Parenting that attempts to control the adolescent’s emotions and opinions ○ May lead to difficult individuating, depression, anxiety, aggression, feelings of incompetence and dependence. ★ Parents and emotional autonomy: ○ Responsibility, self-esteem and positive mental health are fostered by authoritative parenting style ○ Flexible and adequately explained standards and guidelines are easy to adjust and modify as the child matures ○ Authoritarian parents see a child’s emotional independence as rebellious or disrespectful and resist adolescent’s growing need for independence. ★ Peer pressure ○ Happens during an adult’s absence ○ Conformity to peers is greater during the first half of adolescence ○ Strong around the age of 14 ○ Teens have a heightened orientation toward other people ○ Not all peer influence is bad: Teens listen to peers when discouraged from taking risks, as evidenced by behaviours during the pandemic. ○ Being around other teens changes the way their brain functions, activating regions associated with rewards. ○ Girls are less susceptible than boys ○ Black teens are less susceptible than any other ethnic background ○ Asian Americans are particularly more susceptible ○ Youth from single-parent families, less supportive parents, or more controlling parents are also more susceptible ○ Behavioural autonomy is associated with authoritative parenting Teens from authoritative homes are less susceptible to antisocial peer pressure ★ Prosocial behaviour: Behaviours intended to help others ★ Assessing moral reasoning: ○ The dominant theoretical viewpoint in the study of moral reasoning is grounded in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. ★ Preconventional moral reasoning: The 1st level of moral reasoning, in which is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action. ★ Conventional moral reasoning: The second level of moral development, occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning based on the rules and conventions of society. ★ Postcoonventional moral reasoning: The level of moral reasoning during which society rules and conventions are seen as relative and subjective rather than authoritative, also called principled moral reasoning. ★ Moral disengagement: Rationalizing immoral behaviour as legitimate, as a way of justifying one’s bad acts. ★ Prosocial reasoning becomes more sophisticated during late adolescence. ★ Civic engagement: Involvement in political and community affairs, as reflected in knowledge about politics and current affairs, participation in conventional and alternative political activities, and engaging in community service. ★ Service learning: The process of learning through involvement in community service. ★ Religiosity: The degree to which one engages in religious practices, like attending services. ★ Spirituality: The degree to which one places importance on the quest for answers to questions about god and the meaning of life.