Untitled Document (1) PDF - Anatomy & Physiology

CHAPTER 1 - Intro What is an example of homeostasis? Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment. ​ Example: Body temperature regulation – when the body gets too hot, it sweats to cool down; when too cold, it shivers to generate heat. What is the differenc...

CHAPTER 1 - Intro What is an example of homeostasis? Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment. ​ Example: Body temperature regulation – when the body gets too hot, it sweats to cool down; when too cold, it shivers to generate heat. What is the difference between an external and internal stimulus? ​ External Stimulus: Comes from outside the body (e.g., temperature, light, sound). ​ Internal Stimulus: Comes from within the body (e.g., hunger, thirst, pain). What is the difference between a negative and positive feedback loop? Give an example of each. ​ Negative Feedback Loop: Reverses a change to maintain homeostasis. ○​ Example: Blood sugar regulation – insulin lowers blood sugar when it is too high. ​ Positive Feedback Loop: Amplifies a response until a goal is reached. ○​ Example: Childbirth – contractions increase due to oxytocin release. What are the three components of a feedback system? 1.​ Receptor – Detects the stimulus. 2.​ Control Center – Processes the information. 3.​ Effector – Produces the response. What are two examples of signs and symptoms? ​ Sign: Objective, measurable (e.g., fever, rash). ​ Symptom: Subjective, felt by the patient (e.g., pain, dizziness). What is the proper anatomical position? ​ Standing upright ​ Facing forward ​ Arms at the sides ​ Palms facing forward ​ Feet slightly apart, toes pointing forward What are the locations of all the common regional names? What is the difference between these anatomical planes? ​ Frontal (Coronal) – Divides body into front (anterior) and back (posterior). ​ Transverse (Horizontal) – Divides body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior). ​ Sagittal – Divides body into left and right. ○​ Midsagittal: Equal left and right halves. ○​ Parasagittal: Unequal left and right sections. ​ Oblique – A diagonal cut. What is the difference between these terms? ​ Parietal vs. Visceral ○​ Parietal: Lining of a cavity (outer layer). ○​ Visceral: Covers an organ (inner layer). ​ Pleura vs. Pericardium vs. Peritoneum ○​ Pleura: Covers the lungs. ○​ Pericardium: Covers the heart. ○​ Peritoneum: Covers abdominal organs. Definitions ​ Metabolism: Chemical reactions in the body that maintain life. ​ Responsiveness: Ability to detect and respond to changes. ​ Movement: Motion of the body or its parts. ​ Growth: Increase in size or number of cells. ​ Differentiation: Specialization of cells. ​ Reproduction: Formation of new cells or organisms. ​ Homeostasis: Maintaining a stable internal environment. ​ Disease: Abnormal function affecting health. ​ Disorder: Disruption of normal function. ​ Sign: Measurable indicator of disease. ​ Symptom: Subjective experience of illness. Define and use in a sentence ​ Prone: Lying face down. Example: The patient was placed in a prone position for surgery. ​ Supine: Lying face up. Example: The patient rested in a supine position for the MRI. ​ Medial: Closer to the midline. Example: The heart is medial to the lungs. ​ Lateral: Away from the midline. Example: The ears are lateral to the nose. ​ Superior: Above. Example: The head is superior to the chest. ​ Inferior: Below. Example: The feet are inferior to the knees.  ​ Proximal: Closer to the body’s attachment point. Example: The elbow is proximal to the wrist. ​ Distal: Farther from the body’s attachment point. Example: The fingers are distal to the elbow. ​ Deep: Away from the surface. Example: The bones are deep to the skin. ​ Superficial: Closer to the surface. Example: The skin is superficial to the muscles. ​ Dorsal (Posterior): Back side. Example: The spine is dorsal to the heart. ​ Ventral (Anterior): Front side. Example: The stomach is ventral to the spine. ​ Ipsilateral: Same side. Example: The right arm and right leg are ipsilateral. ​ Contralateral: Opposite sides. Example: The left hand is contralateral to the right foot. CHAPTER 2 - Chemistry What is the difference between a polar covalent bond and a non-polar covalent bond? ​ Polar covalent bond: Unequal sharing of electrons (e.g., water). ​ Non-polar covalent bond: Equal sharing of electrons (e.g., oxygen gas). What is a hydrogen bond? A weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (e.g., water molecules bonding together). What is the difference between hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis? ​ Hydrolysis: Breaks bonds by adding water. ​ Dehydration synthesis: Forms bonds by removing water. Examples ​ Solvent & Solute: Water (solvent) dissolving salt (solute). ​ Hydrophilic & Hydrophobic: Sugar (hydrophilic) vs. oil (hydrophobic). Properties of Water ​ High heat capacity: Absorbs heat without major temperature change. ​ High heat of vaporization: Requires a lot of heat to turn into vapor. ​ High surface tension: Water molecules stick together, forming a "film." Acid vs. Base  ​ Acid: Releases H⁺ ions (pH < 7). ​ Base: Releases OH⁻ ions (pH > 7). pH Scale ​ Acidic: 0-6 ​ Neutral: 7 ​ Basic: 8-14 Enzyme Example ​ Amylase: Breaks down starch into sugars. Definitions ​ Free radical: Unstable molecule with unpaired electrons. ​ Cation: Positively charged ion. ​ Anion: Negatively charged ion. ​ Solvent: Liquid that dissolves substances. ​ Solute: Substance dissolved in a solvent. ​ Hydrophilic: Water-attracting. ​ Hydrophobic: Water-repelling. ​ Enzyme: Protein that speeds up chemical reactions. CHAPTER 3 - The Cell To help you understand the cell membrane, draw a simple diagram of one and include the following: ​ Phospholipids – Form the bilayer, hydrophilic heads face outward, hydrophobic tails face inward. ​ Cholesterol – Stabilizes membrane fluidity. ​ Integral proteins – Span the membrane; involved in transport. ​ Peripheral proteins – Attached to the surface; involved in signaling and structure. What is the role of cholesterol in the cell membrane? Cholesterol maintains membrane stability and fluidity by preventing the fatty acid chains from sticking together. What is the role of phospholipids in the cell membrane? Phospholipids form the bilayer, providing a semi-permeable barrier that allows selective passage of substances. What are the functions of membrane proteins? 1.​ Transport – Channels and carriers move molecules across. 2.​ Receptors – Receive signals (e.g., hormones). 3.​ Enzymes – Speed up reactions. 4.​ Cell recognition – Help the immune system identify self vs. non-self. 5.​ Structural support – Anchor cytoskeleton. What is meant by the cell membrane being selectively permeable? It allows some substances to pass (e.g., oxygen, CO₂) while blocking others (e.g., large proteins, charged ions) to maintain homeostasis. What is a concentration gradient? Give an example. Why is it important? A concentration gradient exists when there is a difference in concentration across a membrane. ​ Example: Oxygen moves from high concentration in the lungs to low concentration in the blood. ​ It is important for diffusion, osmosis, and active transport. Give an example of diffusion. What factors influence the rate of diffusion (i.e., Fick’s Law)? ​ Example: Oxygen moving into cells from the bloodstream. ​ Factors influencing diffusion: 1.​ Concentration gradient (greater difference = faster diffusion). 2.​ Temperature (higher temperature = faster diffusion). 3.​ Surface area (more area = faster diffusion). 4.​ Membrane permeability (more permeability = faster diffusion). Explain how the sodium-potassium pump works. The Na⁺/K⁺ pump moves 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in using ATP, maintaining resting membrane potential in neurons and muscles. Give an example of an antiporter and symporter. ​ Antiporter: Moves substances in opposite directions (e.g., Na⁺/K⁺ pump). ​ Symporter: Moves substances in the same direction (e.g., glucose-Na⁺ symporter). Make sure you know what these structures do: 1.​ Cytoskeleton – Provides shape and support. 2.​ Microfilaments – Involved in cell movement and structure. 3.​ Intermediate Filaments – Provide mechanical strength. 4.​ Microtubules – Form the mitotic spindle and cilia. 5.​ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): ○​ Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis, detoxification. ○​ Rough ER: Protein synthesis (has ribosomes). 6.​ Ribosomes – Produce proteins. 7.​ Golgi Complex – Modifies and packages proteins for transport. 8.​ Lysosomes – Break down waste and cellular debris. 9.​ Peroxisomes – Detoxify harmful substances. 10.​Proteasomes – Degrade unneeded proteins. 11.​Mitochondria – Generate ATP through cellular respiration. Definitions ​ Concentration gradient – Difference in concentration across a membrane. ​ Diffusion – Movement of molecules from high to low concentration. ​ Osmosis – Diffusion of water across a membrane. ​ Isotonic solution – Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell. ​ Hypotonic solution – Lower solute concentration outside; cell swells. ​ Hypertonic solution – Higher solute concentration outside; cell shrinks. ​ Antiporter – Moves two substances in opposite directions. ​ Symporter – Moves two substances in the same direction. ​ Transcription – DNA → RNA. ​ Translation – RNA → Protein. ​ Cancer – Uncontrolled cell growth. ​ Benign tumor – Non-cancerous, doesn’t spread. ​ Malignant tumor – Cancerous, spreads. ​ Carcinomas – Cancer in epithelial tissue. ​ Melanomas – Cancer in pigment cells. ​ Sarcomas – Cancer in connective tissue. ​ Leukemia – Cancer in blood-forming tissues. ​ Lymphoma – Cancer in the lymphatic system. CHAPTER 4 - Tissues What are the four general tissue types? What are their functions? 1.​ Epithelial tissue – Covers surfaces; protection, secretion, absorption. 2.​ Connective tissue – Supports, binds, and protects organs. 3.​ Muscle tissue – Produces movement. 4.​ Nervous tissue – Sends electrical signals. Explain the unique characteristics of these cell junctions: 1.​ Tight junctions – Prevent substances from passing between cells. 2.​ Adherens junctions – Provide strong mechanical connections. 3.​ Gap junctions – Allow communication between cells (ions, molecules). 4.​ Desmosomes – Hold cells together in high-stress areas (e.g., skin). 5.​ Hemidesmosomes – Anchor epithelial cells to the basement membrane. General features of epithelial tissue ​ Closely packed cells. ​ Avascular (no blood vessels). ​ High regeneration rate. ​ Lines organs and surfaces. Functions and Locations of Epithelial Tissue Tissue Type Function Location Simple Squamous Diffusion & filtration Lungs, blood vessels Simple Cuboidal Secretion & absorption Kidney tubules, glands Simple Columnar Absorption Digestive tract Ciliated Simple Columnar Moves mucus Respiratory tract Pseudostratified Ciliated Secretes mucus Trachea Columnar Stratified Squamous Protection Skin, mouth Transitional Stretching Bladder Gland Types 1.​ Merocrine – Secrete by exocytosis (e.g., sweat glands). 2.​ Apocrine – Part of the cell pinches off (e.g., mammary glands). 3.​ Holocrine – Entire cell breaks apart to release product (e.g., sebaceous glands). Extracellular Matrix ​ Composed of ground substance and fibers. Types of Matrix Fibers 1.​ Collagen fibers – Strong, flexible (tendons, ligaments). 2.​ Elastic fibers – Stretchy (skin, blood vessels). 3.​ Reticular fibers – Support organs (spleen, lymph nodes). Functions and Locations of Connective Tissues Tissue Type Function Location Areolar Cushioning Under skin Adipose Stores energy Fat tissue Reticular Supports organs Lymph nodes Dense Regular Strong attachment Tendons Dense Irregular Strength in multiple directions Skin Elastic Stretching Arteries Hyaline Cartilage Smooth joint surfaces Joints Elastic Cartilage Flexibility Ear Fibrocartilage Shock absorption Intervertebral discs Blood Transport Blood vessels Lymph Immune function Lymph nodes Bone Support Skeleton Muscle Tissue Types ​ Skeletal – Voluntary, striated. ​ Cardiac – Involuntary, striated, intercalated discs. ​ Smooth – Involuntary, non-striated. Definitions ​ Avascular – Lacks blood vessels. ​ Neuron – Nerve cell. ​ Neuroglia – Supports neurons. ​ Axon – Sends signals. ​ Dendrite – Receives signals.