Unit Two: Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn PDF

UNIT TWO PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN 2.1. Human Evolution Human evolution had been formed through gradual natural process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years BP. The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years BP. Blue green algae, small plants, f...

UNIT TWO PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN 2.1. Human Evolution Human evolution had been formed through gradual natural process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years BP. The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years BP. Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small beings emerged at c. 800 million years BP. Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million years BP and then some primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) while others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).  East African Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity. Biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys. Chororapithecus dated 10 million BP was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007. Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was discovered in Middle Awash. Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.  Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B. P.) in Middle Awash. Australopithecus afarensis, a 3 years old child’s Selam, dated to 3.3 million years BP was discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000. Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years BP) weight 30kg, height 1.07 m & pelvis looks like bipedal female was discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974 AD.  Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana. Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in Afar lang) dated to 2.5 million years B.P was discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999. genus Homo believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P. 1.Homo habilis, Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands), dated 1.9 million years B. P. has been found in the Lower Omo. 2.Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.) was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain size. It originated in Africa. 3. Archaic Homos apiens (knowledgeable human being, dated 400, 000 years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash. 4.Homo sapiens sapiens (100, 000 years B.P.) were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo (in 1967). In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the oldest date in the world for modern Homo sapiens. 5.Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years B.P.  Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-economic transformation on human life: Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. Stone Age: use of 1st stone tools and grouped into 3 on the basis of ways and period of production: 1. Mode I (Olduwan):-crude and mono-facial styles, and produced by the direct percussion. 2. Mode II (Acheulean):- indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features. 3. Mode III (Sangoon): characterized by flexible and finest form of production by the use of obsidian.  Stone Tools in Ethiopia and The Horn Fossilized animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) found with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them at Dikika in 2010. Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar. Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7. million years B.P, invented fire and started burial practice found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963.  Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000 years B. P. Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P. Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have offered noteworthy information about Stone Age communities.  Stone tools is divided into sub-periods:- 1. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.) period when human use stone, bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing. sex-age labor division. 2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 BP.) 3. Neolithic (New Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P).  2.2. Neolithic Revolution A period that human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life. a radical shift involving changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals. In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants including A. Teff (Eragrotis teff), B. dagussa (Eleusine coracana), C. nug (Guzotia abyssinica), D. enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.  Evinces for Existence of Neolithic Material Culture:- A.polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures and animal remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea. B.Agricultural stone tools in the Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum. C.Cattle, chickpeas and vegetables from Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana. D. Stone tools and rock paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar. E. Domesticated cattle comes from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara. F. Domestication of animals like Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle in Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya and Futajalon in West Africa that in due course expanded to Ethiopia and the Horn. 2.3. The Peopling of the Region 2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn that grouped into Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan major language super families.. A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families:  Cushitic: four branches:  Northern: Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.  Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen.  Eastern: Afar, Ale, Arbore, Gidicho (Tabayso), Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.  Southern: Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania Semitic: is divided into two:  North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).  South: divided into two 1. Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane, Zay. 2. Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage, Mesmes (endangered). Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro- Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and 2.3.2. Settlement Patterns A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples across the landscape, is the results of long historical processes in northeast Africa.; settlement was dense and in other areas sparse, extensive highlands and others the lowlands. Environmental, socio-economic, and political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of peoples in the region. Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different directions.  The Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn and have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania. The Semitic peoples, the second majority, spread over large area and settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited along the Omo River basin. In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo. 2.3.3. Economic Formations The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism in Ethiopia and the Horn. A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern lowland region since early periods; Afar, Saho, Somali, Karayu and Borana Oromo. In the plateaus land, majority of the popn were engaged in mixed farming. The sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups.  In the western lowland region(Ethio-Sudanese), the dominant economic formations were pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting. The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food. Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with northern Sudan. 2.4. Religion and Religious Processes 2.4.1. Indigenous Religion Indigenous Religion  religious beliefs and practices which are native to the region and have been followed by the local people since ancient times.  belief in one Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred.  Spiritual functionaries officiate over rituals, propitiate divinities, and are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between the society and spirits.  Oromo: Waqeffanna, one Supreme Being called Waqa; spirits/Ayyana, Irrecha, New Year (Birbo) rite, Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female), Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers), senior Qallu (Abba Muda or anointment father) Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at center and white at bottom representing those in pre-active life, active (Luba) and those in post-active life respectively. Hadiya: - Supreme Being Waa. -One of clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the power to send rain in drought.  Kambata : Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials known as Magnancho. Gedeo : Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro. Konso: religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh. Gojjam Agaw: Supreme Being Diban (Sky God).  Gurage: Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit (health goddess). Gurage and Yem: a common deity known as Abba at Enar (Henar). Yem: worshipped Ha’o (Sky God). Konta: spirit-cult was called Docho. Wolayta: God Tosa and spirit Ayyana  Keficho: Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo and a person who hosts Eqo Boro-Shinasha: super natural power called Iqa, prayer rituals: Gure Shuka for preservation of their locality Shode De’na for unexpected disease happens and Marrowa Shuka for children to grow. Nuer: believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe in the coming of God through rain, lightning and thunder. 2.4.2. Judaism expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established with the ancient Jewish (Hebrew). followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples since the 4th century AD, when the Bete-Israel (house of Israel). 1. ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led by sons of Moses, the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.). 2. split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile. 3. Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba), and considered to be the first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia. 4. Migrates led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D. 5. Jewish immigrants intermarried with the Agaws.  2.4.3. Christianity Introduced in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360). Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius (Fremnatos). When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of EOC. Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch. expanded to the mass of the society in later part of fifth century.  Table I: The Nine Saints Name Origin Church/ Location of the Monastery Church Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray Za Mika’el) Abuna Isaq (Abba Rome Debre Medera (East of Gerima) Gerima Adwa Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Asbo (North Pentelwon East of Aksum) Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum) Abba Alef Qa’esare’ Debre Biheza (Northeast of Aksum) a Haleluya Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera Abba Liqanos Constantinop Debre North of Aksum le Qonasel Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of  The saints translated Bible and other religious books into Geez. Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150- 1270) and the early Medieval Period (1270-1527); Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.  From mid-16th to the early 17th c, Jesuits tried to convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic. As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of treaties concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.  Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries and their major leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf. Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win confidence of local people; translated spiritual books into vernaculars. They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc.  2.4.4. Islam When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since 610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers. Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers to Aksum that led by Jafar Abu Talib. The Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are suffering." The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28. Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees, but the king did not comply. Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refuge with me.”  Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa through peaceful ways including trade. Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of eighth century. In the early 10th c, the Muslim community on the islands developed a sultanate. The port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served as an important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.  In this regard, Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint of medieval period, played very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn: Sof Umar cave. It introduced into Somali territories in the 8 th c AD through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.  Unit Three Politics, Economy And Society In Ethiopia And The Horn To The End Of The Thirteenth Century 3.1. Emergence of States One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture. It was resulted in job specialization. States were formed through the expansion of agriculture that gave rise to the class differentiation. It also facilitated by the growth of trade. State is an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory, sovereignty and government with the power to decree and enforce laws. State was the outcome of regular cultural process. The first states were theocratic states and priests (shaman) maintained the social and religious affairs of their people.  As production became market oriented, the priests replaced by chiefs, who began collecting regular and compulsory tributes and provided protection; their supporters chiefly the army, the bureaucracy and other followers. Ethiopia and the Horn is place where early state took place from small states gradually developed into powerful kingdoms and having a well-demarcated social structure. Geographical proximity to and control of the international water bodies favored some of them to become stronger than their neighbors and eventually dominated them. 3.2. Ancient States 3.2.1. North and Northeast A. Punt The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, accompanied by vivid paintings; tell of a series of naval expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent expedition to Punt collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy). During Pharaoh Asosi, treasurer of God Bawardede took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt. Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), documented at her tomb in Dier El Bahri, sent five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat where warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu and his wife Ati.  Hatshepsut presented some parts of the items to her god, Amun. It was because of the ritual importance of their exports that Puntites were also known as Khebis of the Ta Netjeru (divine or ghosts land). Iron, bronze, cattle, and medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. Axes, daggers, swords clothes, and other trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt. Exact location of Punt is unknown; suggested northern or northeastern Somalia, others suggested Northern Ethiopia and others argue Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Gardafui. B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea Located a little to the south of Aksum. Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the 5th c BC shows that they used politico-religious title known as Mukarib. Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astater (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god).  Cultural centers in northern Ethiopia A.Yeha: located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum that emerged around 1, 000 BC. It seems that the period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about 750 to 500 BC ተ proved remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry, standing temple and inscriptions. B.Hawulti Melazo: southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that inscribed in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings representing herds of cattle have been excavated. C.Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is fetched and the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered. D.other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc. C. The Aksumite State formed around 200-100 B.C and territorially extended up to the Red Sea coast in the East, Nile Valley in the west and northern corner of Eritrea and south as northern parts of Shewa. Adulis was the major port of Aksum on the western coast of the Red Sea. Export items: ivory, myrrh, spices gold, and others. Import items: garments and textiles from Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt, oil and wine from Roman Empire and Syria were imported. Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world.  Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book, the Christian Topography, describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas including Adulis. It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant region called Sasu, a good example of silent trade. Had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the South Arabian region which sometimes result in conflicts around 200 AD Aksumite king, Gadarat, defeated Southern Arabian Peninsula. Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and issued coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local transactions from 3rd to 7th centuries. Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time from the first to the seventh centuries.  Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba, but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many Christians. Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65) with sanctification of Patriarch Timit III (518-538) provided Kaleb with a number of ships transporting armies led by Julianos and Nonossus against Dhu Nuwas. Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia that continued until 570 AD. Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-48) who built church at Zur Amba in Gayint. It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns. Decline of Aksumite state in late 7th c because of internal and external challenges. Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and possibly plague infestation started to weaken it. Destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702 Recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.  Achievements of aksum indigenous script and calendar as well as EOC hymns and chants, paintings etc; diversified ceramic and lithic tools, ivory curving, and urbanization and sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn churches…). developed complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural system including irrigation etc. D. Zagwe Dynasty (C. 1150 to 1270.) Aksumite state shifted center to southwards to Kubar rural highland in the territory of the Agaw, gave Agaw elites the opportunity to take part in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and functionaries(Official) for at least four centuries. Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na’od, overthrew and took power. Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc. Bugna District within Wag and Lasta, at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).  Its territory extended to ancient Aksumite kingdom in the north, Shewa in the south; the Lake Tana region and the northern part of what is today Gojjam in the west. maintained the Aksumite traditions; renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region&export and import items of Aksum & newly minted coins were imported. a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some of religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez.  Construction of 3 kindes churches 1.Cave: decorated inside only eg. Bete-Mesqel. 2.Semi-hewn: interior and partial decoration outside and their roofs or walls are still attached to rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos. 3.Monolithic: detailed decoration in the interior and exterior parts. eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.  Among the 11 churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem; largest of all&Bete Giyorgis; finely in the shape of the cross. Lalibela wanted to establish the 2nd Jerusalem, &mitigate difficulties which EOC encountered by constructing churches based on the model of Holy Lands in Israel. End due to internal problems of royal succession and oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum.  The latter considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba; a book known as Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings) that was translated from Coptic to Arabic and then into Ge’ez. The power claimants contend that “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was “usurped” by the Zagwes.  Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od, organized his forces being assisted by the ecclesiastical hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek in battle. Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state power contending the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.  3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States A. Bizamo: a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the present districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area. It was founded in the 8th c and had early connections with Damot. B. Damot: strong kingdom that found in south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa. Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century. C.Enarya: a kingdom in the Gibe region in SW Ethiopia. The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso). Enarya's kingship was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-Tato) was secluded and considered as sacred. He communicated visitors through an intermediary, AfeBusho. The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha (king's spokesman)&Atche-rasha (royal treasurer). The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi. In the 9th c, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into Enarya, accompanied by EOC priests carrying arks of covenant (tabots). Gibe River Gibealley D. Gafat: lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining Damot on the south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom. It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Adere and the Gurage. It largely remained practitioners of their own indigenous religion. Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle, which came from six districts, among which Gambo and Shat are Gafat clan names. The province was ruled by the title of Awalamo. 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates since the beginning of the 8th c, viable Muslim communities and states had been established at many locations especially along the main trade routes from Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior A.Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 AD (283 AH) on northeastern foothill of Shewa. B.Fatagar: founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the 11th c. It was a hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits, and grazing land for herding cattle, sheep and goats. C.Dawaro: located south of Fatagar b/n upper waters of Awash & Wabi-Shebelle extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast; an Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari. It had a currency called hakuna by which transaction took place. D.Bali: an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes. It was separated from Dawwaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and extended southwards to the Gannale Dirre River. Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces. E.Ifat: a state located in the adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from NE-SW in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash. It was established by Umar Walasma, who claimed decent from Hashamite clan and came from Arabia b/n 1271 and 1285. The sultanate was fertile and well watered. F.Others: independent states like Arababani (b/n Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (b/n Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim were established and  3.3. External Contacts Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. It further strengthen by the introduction of Christianity to Aksum. The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through the Near and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley(Egypt) led to the decline of Aksumite land routes and shipping lines. Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use the consecration and sending of a bishop as an instrument to further their own foreign policy objectives and to squeeze concessions from Ethiopian Christian rulers, who reacted by threatening to divert the Nile.  The Mamluk dynasty prevented Ethiopian Christian pilgrims used the land route to Egypt to arrive at Holy places, Jerusalem. From Cairo, again they used the land route to the Holy land. Consequently, there were considerable numbers of Ethiopian Christian communities found in different regions, in Egyptian monasteries, in the Holy places of Palestine and Armenia, and in Italian city-states in subsequent centuries.  The communities living in different parts of the world served as an important link or bridge b/n Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and Europe. The tradition to visit Jerusalem and other Holy places in the Middle East had begun at the end of the first millennium AD created contact b/n EOC with Egypt, Holy land, Palestine and Armenia, and in Italian city-states in subsequent centuries. Around the middle of the 12th c, a myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John began to circulate in Europe.  In 1165, a letter addressed to European kings, thought to be sent by the Prester John appeared in Europe mentioning about the enormous power of the Prester John. The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not known to Europe for over a century. However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the land of Prester John since the only Christian kingdom between the Red Sea and the Indian sub- continent was the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom. Then, they began to search for the location of the Kingdom and to make an alliance with it. 3.4. Economic Formations A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System The main stay of ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough agriculture that supported by irrigation. Land has always been one of the most precious possessions of human society throughout history. The rules according to which members of the society hold, share and use land constitute what is known as the land tenure system. The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system, a group right.  Land has precious possessions of human society throughout history. The rules according to which members of the society hold, share and use land constitute what is known as the land tenure system. land holding of Ethiopia and the Horn Communal right land: a group right. Rist: a kind of communal birthright to land by members of the families and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in the area over long periods. It was inherited from generation to generation in accordance with customary law.  Gult: a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce. bale-gults: The tribute collected by, partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest were sent to the imperial center. Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste- Gult as famous well-placed officials used to transfer their position to their offspring.  B. Handicraft Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period in various fields with diverse forms and applications including metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewellery, basketry and others. Metal workers, carpenters, potters and and tanners engaged in d/t activities. Except the carpenters and masons in some cases, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized. The ruling classes mostly spent their accumulated wealth on imported luxurious items rather than the domestic technology that discourage improvement of locally produced agricultural implements and house furniture.  C. Trade important economic activity of ancient states that obtained income from both internal and international trade; earliest states located along major trade centers across the international water bodies. A network of roads connected the centers with the coast and various dependencies in the interior. The region was crisscrossed by various trade routes connecting various market places in all directions. The regular flow of trade was so vital to the states in that one of their major concerns was to protect the trade routes and make them safe from robbers. 3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements A. Architecture  Stele: 58 steles in and around Aksum that can be grouped into well made and decorated, half completed and megaliths (not hewn) around the 3rd c AD. They were transported from Gobodara and planted in Aksum. 1. The longest one is 33meters heights (the first in the world). It is highly decorated in all of its four sides. It represents a-14 storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. It also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent (half moon) at the top. It was broken when people trying to erect it or n during war. 2. The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was successfully erected and represents a ten-storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. 3. The third longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine-storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. It is smooth at the back of its side. It is without any decoration.  Lalibela rock-hewn churches registered by UNESCO in 1978.  B. Writing System Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing; left to right and right to left alternatively. The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the 9th c BC which characterized by absence of vowels. For instance, Da’amat was described as D’mt, while its successive kings as RDM, RBH and LMN using title, mlkn. After the 7th and 6th c BC, however, variants of script arose, evolving in the direction of the Geʽez script (an alpha syllabary). By the 1st c AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical to the first- order forms of modern vocalized alphabet.  Though the first completely vocalized texts known are inscriptions by Ezana (who left trilingual inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and Ge'ez) c. 330 AD, vocalized letters predate him by some years, as vocalized letter exists in Wazeba’s coin some 30 or so years before. The process was developed under the influence of Christian scripture by adding vocalic diacritics for vowels, u, i, a, e, ə, o, to the consonantal letters in a recognizable but slightly irregular way, so that the system is laid out as a syllabary. Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense contribution to the development of literature, art and the writing of history.  invented to understand climatic cycles. C. Calendar length of the month was based on the movement of the moon or the apparent movement of the sun. Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days. has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and month has 7 weeks. Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.  Oromo calendar astronomical observations of moon in conjunction with seven or eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning star). 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year. Pillars (dated 300 B.C.), which were discovered in northwestern Kenya from 1978-86 by Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have suggested to represent site used to develop Oromo calendar.  Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which comprise a 13 month. A gap of 7–8 years b/n Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in determining date of Annunciation. The first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually September 11 (Gregorian).  Muslim (Islamic) calendar a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days: Hijra of 622 AD, flight from Mecca to Medina, denoted as AH (After Hijra) and BH ("Before the Hijra"). Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.  D. Numerals Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of 4th c AD. Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks individual characters for multiples of 100. Numbers are over- and underlined in proper typesetting, combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated fonts cannot render this and show separate bars above and below each character.