Ethiopian History: External Relations, Conflicts & Key Battles PDF

3.4. External Relations, Challenges, and Threats Tewodros and European Relations: o Tewodros sought technological aid from European nations for modernization. o Lack of response from the British government led to Tewodros detaining the British consul and oth...

3.4. External Relations, Challenges, and Threats Tewodros and European Relations: o Tewodros sought technological aid from European nations for modernization. o Lack of response from the British government led to Tewodros detaining the British consul and other Europeans. o This action resulted in a British military expedition that stormed and plundered Meqdela. o The British forces withdrew after securing the release of European captives. Battles of Gundet and Gura: o In 1875, Khedieve Ismael Pasha of Egypt launched a war against Ethiopia from three directions. o Key Events: o October 1875: Mohammed Rauf Pasha occupied Harar. o Swiss mercenary Werner Muzinger attempted to invade through Tajura but was ambushed by the Afar. o A Danish colonel, Arendrup, led another Egyptian force into Ethiopia, reaching the Mereb River. Battle of Gundet: o Emperor Yohannis IV mobilized an army of 20,000 to 25,000 men. o On November 16, 1875, the Ethiopians achieved a complete victory over the encircled Egyptian troops. o Colonel Arendrup and about 1,320 Egyptian soldiers were killed. o Despite this defeat, the Egyptians did not withdraw from Ethiopian territory. Second Expedition: o Khedieve Ismael launched a larger expedition in 1876 with 15,000 troops under Mohammed Ratib Pasha. o The second battle occurred from March 7 to 9, 1876, at Gura, leading to Ethiopian victory and capture of 2,500 Egyptian soldiers and heavy weapons. Consequences: o Ethiopian victories did not lead to lasting peace as Egyptians maintained control over occupied territories. o Emperor Yohannis IV struggled to push Egyptians out of Massawa or Bogos. o The battles taught Khedieve Ismael that annexation of Ethiopian territories through military force was unfeasible. o The captured Egyptian weapons helped Yohannis IV establish dominance over other regional lords. The Hewett (Adwa) Treaty of 1884 Signing Parties: Emperor Yohannis IV of Ethiopia and British Admiral William Hewett. Purpose of the Treaty: o Facilitate the safe evacuation of Egyptian troops trapped in eastern Sudan via Ethiopia. o British promises included the return of Bogos to Ethiopia and making Massaw a free port for Ethiopia.  Execution: o Emperor Yohannis IV honored the treaty by allowing the evacuation led by General Ras Alula Engeda. o The British failed to uphold their promises, allowing Italy to occupy Massawa. The Dogali Incident (1885) Italian Occupation: Italy, aided by the British, occupied Massawa and expanded into Eritrea. Conflict: The Italian attempt to control Mereb Melash was opposed by Emperor Yohannis IV and Ras Alula. Dogali Battle: o Date: 26 January 1887. o Ras Alula intercepted and defeated an Italian army of about 500 soldiers. o This incident marked the first significant defeat of Italian forces by Ethiopian troops. Italian Response: o Condemned the attack as unjust and demanded an apology from Emperor Yohannis IV. o Sought to occupy Keren, Assaurta, Habab regions, and reoccupy Saati and Wia. British Intervention Role of Britain: Acted as a peace broker in favor of Italy. Gerald Portal's Mission: Proposed an official Ethiopian apology for Ras Alula’s attack, which was rejected by Yohannis IV. Outcome: o Yohannis chose war over accepting the peace terms. o Ethiopia began preparations for conflict, mobilizing a large army of 80,000 soldiers in March 1888. March to Saati: o Yohannis advanced but returned without fighting due to Italian refusal to engage. o Concerns about Mahdist incursions and disloyal vassals influenced his decision. Aftermath: Yohannis launched a punitive campaign against Gojjam and addressed the Mahdist threat in Metemma. The Battle of Metemma and Religious Division in Ethiopia Context of the Battle of Metemma: o Late 1880s: Emperor Yohannis faced multiple threats. o Mahadist soldiers attacked from the west, destroying churches and cities. o Italians occupied regions including Massawa and Wia. o Internal issues with vassals King Menilek of Shewa and Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam. Yohannis's Strategy: o Postponed war with Italians to address internal revolts.  o Conducted punitive campaigns in Gojjam; Tekle Haimanot submitted. o Moved to confront Menilek but recognized Italian influence. Battle of Metemma: o Date: March 9, 1889. o Ethiopian forces faced Mahadist troops. o Emperor Yohannis was fatally wounded, leading to a retreat. o Yohannis died the following day; his body was desecrated by Ansars. o Consequences: Shift of power to Shewa with Menilek crowned Emperor Menilek II. Impact of the Battle: o Weakening of northern defenses allowed Italian expansion into Mereb Melash. o Italians proclaimed Eritrea a colony on January 1, 1890. Religious Division and Doctrinal Debates: o Monarchs believed in religious uniformity for national unity. o Emperor Yohannis IV attempted to enforce uniformity at the Council of Borumeda (1878). o Muslims faced pressure to convert to Orthodox Christianity. o Rival Muslim chiefs, Imam Mohammed Ali and Imam Amede Liben, were given options to convert or lose power. The Battle of Adwa: o Relations between Menilek and Italians began in 1876, culminating in the Treaty of Wuchale (May 2, 1889). o Article 17 of the Treaty led to misunderstandings regarding Ethiopian sovereignty. o Menilek abrogated Article 17 in February 1893. Adwa Campaign Phases: o Battle of Ambalage (December 7, 1895): Ethiopian forces led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu defeated Italians. o Siege of Mekelle (January 7-21, 1896): Ethiopians cut off water supply, forcing surrender. o Final Battle of Adwa (March 1, 1896): Major Ethiopian victory over Italians. Key Leaders in the Adwa Campaign: o Emperor Menilek II and Etege Tayitu. o Ras Mengesha Yohannes and Ras Alula Engda (Tigray). o King Abba Jifar II of Jimma, Kawo Tona of Wolaita, Dejach Jote Tulu, and Dejach Gebre Egziabher. o Prominent commanders: Ras Mekonnen, Fitawrari Gebeyehu, Ras Mikael, Negus Teklehaimanot, Ras Wolle Bitul, Dejach Balcha, etc. Aftermath of the Battle of Adwa: o Ethiopian forces numbered around 100,000, with modern weaponry. o Italian losses: Approximately 7,000 men, 2,500 wounded, 3,500 captured. o General Baratieri ordered a retreat; two Italian generals died. o Treaty of Addis Ababa (October 26, 1896) nullified Treaty of Wuchale and recognized Ethiopian independence, excluding Eritrea. 3.5. The Victory of Adwa Significance of the Victory of Adwa Historical Landmark: The Ethiopian victory over the Italians at Adwa marked a crucial point in modern Ethiopian history. Political Impact in Italy: The defeat led to the resignation of Italian Prime Minister Crispi. Influence on Africa and Diaspora: o The victory was significant for not only Ethiopia but also for African peoples and Black individuals in countries like the United States and South Africa. o Restored Black dignity and pride internationally. Lessons Learned: o Demonstrated that Black people are not inferior to White people. o Inspired movements like Pan-Africanism, Ethiopianism, and Rastafarianism. o Showed that colonial powers could be defeated, encouraging anti-colonial movements. Internal Implications: o Guaranteed Ethiopia's political independence despite Eritrea remaining under Italian control until 1941. o Established Ethiopia as the only recognized independent African nation during the colonial era. o Fostered a sense of unity among Ethiopians, showing that collective strength leads to invincibility. International Recognition: o The victory allowed Ethiopia to negotiate internationally recognized boundaries. o Emperor Menilek II signed several treaties with colonial powers: o French Somaliland (Djibouti) - March 1897 o Eritrea - July 1900, 1902, 1908 o Anglo-Egyptian Sudan - May 1902 o British East Africa (Kenya) - December 1907 o Italian Somaliland - May 1908 Leaders of the Battle: o Ethiopian Forces: Led by Emperor Menilek II and Empress Taytu. o Italian Forces: Commanded by General Oreste Baratieri. Battlefields: The battle took place near the town of Adwa in northern Ethiopia. The Birth of Eritrea as an Italian Colony: Key Points Treaty of Wuchale: Signed on May 2, 1889, between Menilek and Count Pietro Antonelli; article 3 is often cited as a pivotal factor in establishing Eritrea as an Italian colony. Historical Context: o First contact between the Negus of Shewa and Italy began in 1876 with the Antinori mission. o In 1879, the Rubatino shipping company purchased Assab from the local Afar Sultan. o Assab was transferred to the Italian government in 1882.  Alliances: o Menilek provided a resting place for the Italian mission at Let Marefya. o Italians helped Menilek acquire firearms. o Treaty of Commerce and Friendship signed in 1883. o Convention of Neutrality signed in 1887, where Menilek agreed to remain neutral in the event of war. Motivations: o Menilek aimed for friendly relations with Italy to strengthen his position for the Ethiopian Imperial throne. o Italians sought to colonize Ethiopia and viewed Menilek as a key ally. Article III of Wuchale Treaty: o Defined borders between Italian territories and the rest of Ethiopia, including villages like Arafaïli, Segeneity, Asmara, and Adi Yohannis. o The territorial concessions were unsatisfactory for the Italians, leading to further territorial ambitions. Ras Mekonnen's Role: o Ras Mekonnen, Menilek's cousin, was persuaded to sign an additional convention on October 1, 1889, which aimed to extend Italian claims towards the Mereb River. Occupation and Declaration: o Despite Menilek's protests, Italians occupied the entire Mereb Melash region. o On January 1, 1890, Italy officially declared the establishment of the colony of Eritrea. Power Struggle among Ruling Elites, 1906-1935: Key Points Problem of Succession (1906) o Emperor Menilek II suffered his first stroke in 1906; he died in 1913. o Ras Mekonnen, Menilek’s cousin and likely successor, died in the same year. o The Tripartite Treaty was signed by Britain, France, and Italy to protect their interests in the Horn of Africa amidst potential succession conflicts. Measures by Menilek II o Established the first Council of Ministers (October 1907). o Designated his grandson, Lej Iyasu, as his legal successor in May 1909. o Ras Tesema Nadew was appointed regent for the young Lej Iyasu. Influence of Etege Taytu o Etege Taytu, Menilek's wife, opposed Lej Iyasu’s succession and strengthened her political power through strategic marriages. o Her actions led to opposition from Shewan nobility, particularly Ras Bitwoded Tesema Nadew and Fitawrari Habte Giorgis Dinegde. o Taytu was ultimately removed from power in a coup led by Fitawrari Habte Giorgis in 1910. Lej Iyasu’s Rule (1911-1916) o After the death of Ras Tesema, Lej Iyasu began to exercise political authority independently. o Introduced significant reforms:  o Promoted equal status for Ethiopian Muslims in administration. o Supported the building of mosques and established marriage alliances with Muslim leaders. o Implemented a municipal police force (Terenbule) and a Department of Education. o Abolished inhumane practices like the Quragngna and Leba Shay. Controversial Religious Policies o Attempted to establish equality between Christians and Muslims. o Faced criticism for perceived favoritism towards Islam. Opposition and Downfall o Accusations of immorality and irresponsible leadership due to his polygamous lifestyle and frequent absences. o His support for Somali nationalism angered colonial powers (Britain, France, Italy) during WWI. o Deposed on September 27, 1916, following a coup that had patriarch Abune Mathewos excommunicate him. o Zewditu Menilek was named Empress, and Dejach Teferi Mekonnen became the heir. Key Battles and Leaders o Battle of Segele (October 27, 1916): Led to the defeat of Lej Iyasu's father, Negus Mikael, and solidified the Shewan nobility's power. o Battle of Anchim (March 31, 1930): Ras Gugsa Wole was defeated and killed, allowing Teferi Mekonnen to ascend as Emperor Haile Selassie I. Emergence of Autocracy (1930-1955) o Haile Selassie was crowned Emperor on November 2, 1930. o Introduced the 1931 Constitution to consolidate power. o Removed hereditary rulers, including the last ruler of Gojjam, Ras Hailu, in 1932. o Established the Imperial Bodyguard and Holeta Military Academy before the Italian invasion in 1935. Italian Aggression and the Patriotic Resistance: Causes and Courses of the War Causes of the War o Italy sought revenge for its defeat at Adwa in 1896. o The invasion of Ethiopia began on October 3, 1935. o Italian colonial interests in Ethiopia grew after Benito Mussolini and the Fascist Party came to power in 1922. o The Fascists aimed to restore the glory of the Ancient Roman Empire. Major Events o Initial Invasion: Italian troops crossed the Mereb River on October 3, 1935, and entered Mekelle on November 8. o Ethiopian Command Structure: Emperor Haile Selassie appointed Ras Kassa Hailu as the overall commander of the northern front. Key leaders included: o Ras Emeru Haile Selassie (Shire front) o Ras Mulugeta Yegezu (Enderta front) o Ras Seyoum Mengesha (Temben front)  Major Battles o Tembien Battles: Ras Kassa and Ras Seyoum engaged in two major battles in January and February 1936. Despite their effort, they could not halt the Italian advance. o Battle of Endabaguna: Ras Emeru’s forces ambushed and defeated a group of Italian ascari. o Battle of Amba Aradom: Ras Mulugeta's forces were defeated by the Italians. o Final Battle at Maychew: Fought on March 31, 1936, commanded by Emperor Haile Selassie I. The Ethiopian forces faced a well-fortified Italian army with air superiority, resulting in defeat. Aftermath of the Battles o Following Maychew, Ethiopian troops faced brutal aerial bombardment. o Addis Ababa was captured by Italian troops led by Marshal Badoglio on May 5, 1936. Southern Front Engagements o Ethiopian forces under Ras Desta Damtew, Dejach Nesibu Zamanuel, and Dejach Mekonnen Endalkachew fought against Italian forces led by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani. o The Italians maintained air superiority and numerical advantage. International Response o Ethiopia joined the League of Nations in 1923, seeking assistance against Italian aggression. o Emperor Haile Selassie appealed for support in Geneva, but the League imposed sanctions on both Ethiopia and Italy, providing little help to Ethiopia. The Italian Occupation of Ethiopia Italian forces, led by Marshal Badoglio, entered Addis Ababa amidst chaos following Emperor Haile Selassie I's departure. Badoglio was the first Italian viceroy of Ethiopia but was soon replaced by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani. Graziani's tenure faced an assassination attempt on February 19, 1937, by Moges Asgedom and Abraha Deboch. Following the assassination attempt, tens of thousands of innocent civilians in and around Addis Ababa were brutally massacred by Graziani's forces. After the Addis Ababa massacre, Graziani was succeeded by the more liberal Duke of Aosta, who remained in power until the Italians were finally defeated and expelled in 1941. The Italian fascist occupation lasted five years and was primarily concentrated in major towns due to widespread patriotic resistance. The towns where traces of Italian occupation were left include Addis Ababa, Gondar, Dessie, Harar, and Jimma. Addis Ababa, serving as the capital of Italian East Africa, saw changes such as new urban settlement patterns, electricity, piped water, and the establishment of many factories. During this period, the name Ethiopia was discarded, and the region became part of the Italian East African Empire, which included Eritrea and Somaliland.  The Italian East African Empire was divided into six administrative regions, each with its own capital: 1. Eritrea (including Tigray) - Asmara 2. Amhara (Begemder, Wollo, Gojjam, and North Shewa) - Gondar 3. Oromo-Sidama - Jimma 4. Addis Ababa (later renamed Shewa) - Addis Ababa 5. Harar - Harar 6. Italian Somaliland (including the Ogaden) - Mogadishu The occupation was characterized by significant road construction and the expansion of motor transport, which were crucial for military operations. Despite the fascist ideology of racial purity, the occupation saw inter-racial marriages and an increase in prostitution. The Italian authorities also controlled the import-export trade in Ethiopia. The Patriotic Resistance and the War of Liberation Overview of the Conflict: o The Italians occupied Addis Ababa on May 5, 1936, after defeating Ethiopian forces in conventional warfare. o A nationwide patriotic resistance emerged, which can be divided into two phases: o First Phase (1935–36 Italo-Ethiopian War): Characterized by conventional fighting. o Second Phase: Initiated after the February massacre of 1937, marked by guerrilla warfare. Key Figures in the First Phase: o Ras Desta Damtew: Leader who resisted until his capture and execution in February 1937. o Dejach Beyene Merid: A commander on the southern front. o Dejach Gebre Mariam Gari: Another key leader in the resistance. o Abune Petros: A spiritual leader who was executed, becoming a martyr for the cause. o Asfawosen and Abera Kassa: Sons of Ras Kassa who attempted to resist but were betrayed and executed. Second Phase of Resistance: o The guerrilla warfare intensified after the Graziani massacre of 1937. o The Fascist regime targeted educated Ethiopians and the Ethiopian Orthodox clergy, leading to the destruction of churches and the execution of monks, particularly in Debre Libanos. Widespread Guerrilla Struggle: o Resistance was particularly strong in regions such as Gojjam, Begemder, and Shewa, with participation from various ethnic and religious groups. o Collaborators known as banda worked with the Italians, complicating the struggle. Key collaborators included: o Ras Hailu Teklehaimanot: Main collaborator from Gojjam. o Ras Seyoum Mengesha, Ras Getachew Abate, Dejach Ayalew Birru, and Aba Jobir: Other collaborators who provided intelligence to the Italians.  Impact of World War II: o The entry of Italy into World War II in June 1940 led to British support for Emperor Haile Selassie and the Ethiopian patriots. o British forces launched major offensives from Sudan and Kenya, leading to the liberation of Addis Ababa on April 6, 1941, with Emperor Haile Selassie returning on May 5, 1941. Women in the Resistance: o Women played a vital role despite the male-dominated leadership, contributing in various ways: o Kebedech Seyoum: Daughter of Ras Seyoum and an influential figure. o Shewanesh Abrha: Wife of the executed Dejach Hailu Kebede. o Lekyelesh Beyan and Senedu Gebru: Active participants in the resistance. o Women were responsible for supporting the fighters by: o Collecting wood, fetching water, and preparing food. o Encouraging fighters and shaming those reluctant to join the struggle. o Some women directly engaged in combat. o Inner Patriots: Women such as Woyzero Shewareged Gedle and Woyzero Shewanesh Abebe worked covertly within the Italian camp, providing vital information and resources to the resistance.