Ethiopian History: Politics, Economy & Society (13th-16th Centuries) PDF

UNIT FOUR POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonid’’ Dynasty  The Zagwe dynasty was overthrown in 1270 by a powerful force that combi...

UNIT FOUR POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonid’’ Dynasty  The Zagwe dynasty was overthrown in 1270 by a powerful force that combined military, economic, and ideological resources.  Yekunno-Amlak, a contender from Amhara, launched a series of military campaigns from Lasta to Gayint, ultimately defeating Yetbarek, the last Zagwe king b/c he was unable to resist the powerful force of Yekunno- Amlak  Following the defeat of Yetbarek by Yikuno Amlak, “Solomonid” Dynasty restored by Yikuno Amlak  Yekunno-Amlak's military power base in Shewa  Cont’d  Yikuno Amlak was the first emperor of the restored Solomonic line or Yekunno-Amlak (r. 1270-85) considered as the starting point of the "restoration" of the ancient "Solomonid" dynasty of Aksum, the legend essentially binds Ethiopia with the Judeo- Christian tradition.  Yikuno Amlak reigned from 1270-1285 AD & ruled the restored “Solomonic” Dynasty almost 15 years  In the dominant ideological narrative of the "Solomonids", the Zagwe dynasty was cast as the "usurper" of the royal throne of the ancient kingdom of Aksum, despite its promotion of Christianity and adherence to Aksumite secular culture  Cont’d According to Kibre Negest ("The Glory of the Kings"), Zagwe evoked to delegitimize/ illegitimate/ "usurper" and "Solomonid" dynasty evoked to legitimize the.  The name “Restoration” is enclosed/put in quotation mark due to there is no historical evidence.  Similarly, the name “Solomonid” is placed in quotation marks because the accusation leveled against the Zagwe dynasty as "usurper".  According to Kibre Negest, Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel.  As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno Amlak to Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.  4.2. Internal Political Conflict  The formative years of the "Solomonids" were chacterized by two vexing challenges: power struggles & Christian-Muslim conflict  establishing a consistent modality of succession to the throne and  formulating an effective policy for regulating Christian-Muslim relations in Ethiopia.  Crises of succession erupted following the death of Yekunno- Amlak (1285) and his son and successor, Yegba-Tsion (r. 1285-94). Following the death of Yikuno-Amlak and Yegba-Tsion, a political instability occurred  The cause of political instability was constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons  Cont’d  The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five sons or from 1294 to 1299.  The reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five sons ruled the restored “Solomonid” Dynasty from 1294 to 1299  the name of the five sons of Yegba-Tsion 1. Tsinfe Ar’ad r. 1294-95 2. Hizib Asged r. 1295-96 3. Kidme Asged r. 1296-97 4. Jan Asged and r. 1297-98 5. Seb’a Asged r. 1298-99  Each of the five son of Yegba-Tsion ruled the restored “Solomonid” Dynasty only one year  Cont’d  In 1299, power transferred from Seb’a Asged to Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314)  To prevent a similar future power struggle between potential heirs, a "royal prison" was established at Amba Gishen, in Wollo, commissioned by Widim-Ra'ad (r. 1299-1314).  During at that time, all male members of the royal family were confined at Amba-Gishen until one among them was installed in power to solve the succession problem  Cont’d  This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's (Ahmed Gragn) force in 1540. or  The fortress served the intended purpose from the 13th century until it fell to Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi's army in 1540.  According to a 15th c manuscript, by the middle of the same century, 590 descendants of sovereigns were sequestered/ confined at Amba Gishen.  4.3. Power Consolidation and Spatial Extension  When Yekunno-Amlak ascended the throne in 1270, the Christian kingdom had already expanded its territory to a large portion of present-day Eritrea, northern, northwestern and central Ethiopia.  However, it had no control east of the Shewan plateau, a territory increasingly occupied by Muslim states such as Ifat and Hadiya. Moreover, there were other political entities of various sizes, including the kingdom of the Ethiopian Jews, the kingdom of Gojjam, the kingdom of Damot, and Muslim principalities along the coast from the Dahlak archipelago in the Red Sea to the Somali settlement of Brava on the coast of the Indian Ocean.  Cont’d Upon becoming king, Amde-Tsion (r. 1314-44) embarked on two major projects: solidifying the power of the "Solomonid" dynasty in the Christian provinces, and enlarging the kingdom by conquering other political units. Under Amde-Tsion, the Christian kingdom saw rapid expansion, with no parallel in medieval Ethiopian history. The emperor marched south and successfully conquered the vast kingdoms of Damot and Hadiya, the strongest polities west and south of the Awash River, respectively, in 1316-17.  Cot’d  His kingdom's sphere of influence stretched to the region encompassing the basins of the Gibe, Gojeb and Omo rivers.  Subsequently, Gojjam and the northern area of Lake Tana were also annexed around this time.  Thus strengthened, Amde-Tsion was able to assert his authority over a chain of Muslim communities stretching from the Gulf of Aden to the Awash valley - Ifat, Dawaro, Sharkha, and Bali.  Cont’d  the emperor's expansionist campaigns were primarily motivated by the ambition to seize new lands and gain control over the lucrative trade routes dominated by Ethiopian Muslims. In short, the "Solomonids" had set their eyes on "terrain and trade."  He known by his territorial expansion during medieval period  The consolidation and territorial expansion of the Christian Kingdom continued during the successors of Amde-Tsion.  4.4. Administration and Military Organization of the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom 4.4.1. Administration  Amde-Tsion's vast kingdom, with few additions by his descendants, was not a unified state.  The hybrid/ unified administrative system served as the basic organization of the kingdom.  It consisted of three concentric circles around a core.  The innermost circle constituted the core provinces directly controlled by the emperor and administered by his representatives.  It was in these provinces that centralized administration appeared stronger.  Cont’d  The second circle constituted the largest part included the rulers of the territories submission to the king, payment of tribute and fulfillment of obligations, could retain their autonomy and hereditary positions.  The core army which the Christian emperors maintained as a symbol and mainstay of their authority ensured the continued loyalty of these territories  As such, they were heavily garrisoned by the chewa, as this military regiment was  Cont’d The third circle consisted of territories that lay beyond the direct control of the king although considered an integral part of the kingdom's political realm. In these outlying areas, the authority of the monarchs was more symbolic than real b/c local rulers recognized as autonomous actors  Cont’d  Before the reign of Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r. 1434-1468), centralized administrative system was never fully achieved, but the officials had a title at both the royal court and local levels  Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r. 1434-1468) was particularly determined to establish a centralized administrative system by strengthening the central authority, creating a body of state officials, reorganizing court officials, bolstering the army, and increasing control over revenue sources.  To implementing his reforms, he also sought the active involvement of the church hierarchy and monastic orders.  However, Zara-Yaqob's radical approach ultimately backfired, as it united rival factions and power holders against his reforms.  4.4.2. Military Organization  For much of the medieval period, the kingdom's army consisted of 4 types of regiments: 1) regular troops of the Emperor 2) regular troops of individual military leaders 3) specially mobilized territorial troops, and 4) irregular troops  The spearhead of the traditional military units were regiments called chewa.  The word chewa has had a complex history, for its earliest meaning was a military regiment.  Other terms used to describe units or armies included serawit, Kara (`army'), and chefra (`body of troops').  These regiments were organized on the basis of region of origin and identity  Cont’d  Emperor Yekunno-Amlak frequently participated in fierce battles, chosen his front line commanders from trusted friends and relatives  These officers held titles such as azmach, dejjazmach, ras, fitawrari, balambaras, azazh and basha.  The military title named  ras commanding larger armies (up to 40,000),  dejjazmach or fitawrari commanding mid-sized corps (up to 10,000 men), and  other officers /azmach, balambaras, azazh and basha/ commanding smaller groups of men (2,000 to 5,000).  Cont’d  The rapid expansion of territories allowed Amde-Tsion and his successors to create new chewa regiments from the conquered peoples, who were known for their martial/ military abilities.  These military units had diverse religious and ethnic composition.  The new military organization of Amde-Tsion had three types of units based on their recruiting provinces, military prowess and weapons or equipment.  The first unit consisted of territorial forces named after the provinces from which they were recruited, such as Amhara, Shewa, Gojjam, Damot, Hadiya, Seqelt, Gondar, Harb Gwanda (likely Gafat), and  Cont’d The second unit consisted of elite contingents with prestigious names signifying their military skills/ prowess, such as Tekula (`Jackal'), Qeste neheb (`arrow of abee'), and Korem (`cavalry'). The third group was identified by the weapons or equipment that the soldiers wielded. Such as Tsewareyane warmat (`carriers of spear(s)'), the Tsewareyane warmat abbiyan (`carriers of large spears'), and the Tsewareyane asayeft (`carriers of swords') The successors of Amde-Tsion followed similar patterns, but Zara-Yaqob Zara- Yaqob, in particular, reorganized the chewa regiment by keeping them in the royal camp as a mobile striking force and strengthening his bodyguards.  Cont’d He also attempted to introduce new technologies and methods of warfare into his army from Mamluk Egypt and Christian Europe Shihab al-Din describes the army of Emperor Lebne-Dengel (r. 1508-1540) "as numerous as locusts", with approximately 16,000 cavalry and 200, 000 infantry at one point around 1529.  4.4.3. Temporal Administrative and Military Decline  The balance of power of the Christian kingdom began to wane in the last three decades of the 15th c by such factors. 1. internal political rift began at the end of reign of Zara- Yaqob's. Law and order reached a low point, the power of the monarchy weakened, and the economy suffered b/c rivalry was continued b/n Christian kingdom and Muslim forces. 2. the failure of national integration The extensive conquests of the 14th and 15th centuries brought into the orbit of the Christian kingdom diverse communities  4.5. Economic Bases of the Kingdom  The kingdom generated their revenue /income from land, labour, and trade routes  The economic power of the kingdom was primarily derived from control over land, labour, and trade routes.  Land was the cornerstone of the country's economy, supporting farming, animal husbandry, and mining of minerals such as copper, iron, gold, and silver..  Cont’d  After conquering the Muslim territories along the eastern frontiers, the kingdom generated their revenue by controlling the trading activities  The kingdom revenue/wealth came from tributes by imposing/levying import and export taxes on all traded goods and organizing well-equipped caravans led by their own appointed commercial representatives.  4.6. Cooperation, Competition and Conflict between Christian and Muslim Rival Powers By the end of the 13th c, the flourishing trade had given rise to powerful Muslim communities that formed well-organized principalities/ territories and states. Among the most significant were Shewa, Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Hadiya, Bale, and Adal. Adal was a small state believed to have been situated south of Ifat, possibly in the direction of the Harar Plateau. Adal was conquered by the Walasma ruler of Ifat in 1288 In the years following 1288, Adal apparently regained its sovereignty. This is because during Amde- Tsion's conflicts with the Muslims, Adal operated independently from Ifat.  Cont’d Soon afterwards, however, Adal became subordinate to Ifat. This arrangement apparently persisted until 1415. In this year, Zeila was captured by King Yishaq, and the Walasma sultan Sadaddin Abu 1-Barakat Muhammad b. Ahmad was killed. The members of the Walasma family were forced to flee to Yemen but later returned. From then on, they no longer held the title "sultan of Ifat" but "sultan of Adal." Dakar was served as the center of Walasma Dynasty after Adal became independent from Ifat  Cont’d The desire for economic and political hegemony lay behind the causes of the hostility that for the most part characterized the relationship between the two rival Christian and Muslim power centres. Amde-Tsion's punitive campaigns against Ifat, and later against Hadiya, Fatagar, and Dawaro, were provoked by the attack of Ifat's ruler Haqaddin I on the Christian Kingdom in 1328 He also ahead crushed the planned attacks of Ifat's Sultan Sabreddin, Dawaro's ruler Haydara and Hadya's king Amano in 1332.  Cont’d  Neway Maryam (r. 1371-80) launched a campaign against Adal after Haqaddin II (1363-86) refused to pay tribute. The confrontations of Dawit II (r. 1379-1412), Tewodros I (r. 1412- 1413) and Yeshaq (r. 1413-1430) with successive leaders of Adal were driven by both parties' desire to assert dominance.  The well-documented battle of Yeguba in 1445 was triggered by the refusal of the Adal king Ahmed Badlay to send tribute to Emperor Zara-Yaqob.  Cont’d  Peaceful relations resumed when Mohammed Ahmed (r. 1445- 71), the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay, sent the required tribute to Emperor Ba'ede Mariam (r.1468-78).  Emir Mahfuz's advance against Emperor Lebne-Dengel ended in failure and resulted in his death in July 1517.  The religious difference between Christian emperors and Muslim rulers was not the primary cause of the conflicts.  4.7. Interaction and Integration of Peoples and Cultures  Interaction and integration of Peoples and Cultures were brought based on the following historical factors: 4.7.1. Expansion of the Christian Kingdom The expansion of the Christian Kingdom in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries promoted the integration of Ethiopia People even began to associate themselves with the legend of the Queen of Sheba. For example, the kings of Kafa and Kambata claimed descent from Solomon and Sheba. Territorial expansion by the Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to the south.  4.7.2. Population Movement, Interaction, and Integration As the Christian Kingdom expanded, various populations also moved into the kingdom through both small and large-scale movements. A good number of Ethiopian people have travelled over time  in search of new lands  on raiding expeditions  to escape famine,  to conduct trade  in pursuit of religious studies and on pilgrimages.  These frequent travels have helped to forge intimate relationship between otherwise distinct ethnic groups of Ethiopia.  4.7.3. Roving Court Adafa, the seat of the Zagwe rulers, served as the last permanent capital of the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom until the establishment of Debre Birhan for a brief period in the 1450s. Yekunno-Amlak and his successors governed their vast territories from mobile royal camps in regions such as Ifat, Amhara, Shewa, Dawaro, and Fatagar. This mobility allowed them to assert their authority, dispense justice, quell uprisings, deter raids from lowland pastoralists, and avoid resource diversion  Cont’d The royal encampment also served as trading center where Christian and Muslim artisans, vendors and merchants met to exchange goods and services. This regular traffic between the court and country no doubt fostered cultural exchange between large numbers of Ethiopians, contributing to the relative unity/cohesion of the kingdom.  4.7.4. Establishment of Military Garrisons The military regiments of the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom also played a crucial role in both political and cultural integration. Military garrisons of chewa regiments were established in newly conquered territories. The regiments became less mobile, forming strong connections with the inhabitants of the territories they were stationed in, which in due course evolved into a territorial army over time. This integration allowed the soldiers to promote Christianity, languages, class manners, and the land tenure system to the regions they were stationed in.  4.7.5. Warfare Throughout history, various Ethiopian social groups have engaged in conflicts for a multitude of reasons, such as  acquiring cattle, slaves, territory, control over trade routes, fulfilling ritual obligations or display of masculinity.  These conflicts facilitated interactions among different groups. 4.7.6. Market Centres as Cultural Melting Pots Markets have served as a platform for interethnic interactions. Local and regional markets facilitated direct contact between different groups, and indirectly through caravan trades. Historical marketplaces such as Dabarwa in Eritrea, Manadalay in southern Tigray, Qorqora/Qoreta (around Waldiya) and Wasel near Ware-Illu had played an important integrative role.  Cont’d The ruins surrounding Jigjiga, Harar and Charchar attest to market towns that had once thrived along the main trade routes. Weez-Gebeya in western Shewa, Suq-Wayzaro in Damot, and Suq-Ameja and Gandabalo in Ifat-Awsa in eastern Shewa were famed hubs for commercial and cultural exchange.  4.7.7. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Monastic Networks Fostered Integration  The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has historically been a force of integration particularly on the religious and cultural planes The church wove a fabric of unity and identity where the administrative and military organization of the kingdom had little success. The internal revival within the church and the emergence of monastic networks were two factors prompted the role EOC. The church's missionary work closely followed the kingdom's expansion in the 14th c, with support from the kingdom in the form of land grants to aid in the evangelization of non-Christian populations in newly conquered regions.  Cont’d  The revival of the church also led to the rise of monastic activities, particularly in Amhara and Shewa, by monastic figures like Iyesus Mo'a of Debre IIayq and Tekle-Haymanot (1215-1313) of Debre Asbo (renamed in the fifteenth century as Debre Libanos).  Christianity was evangelized without completely eradicating traditional beliefs and practices.  Nevertheless, Emperor Zara-Yaqob's church reforms, which aimed to maintain the "purity" of Christianity, were the last serious blow to this practice of syncretism.  Cont’d While the Ewostatean monastic movement, active since the fourteenth century and centered on the issue of the observance of the Sabbath, was peacefully resolved, others, like the Stephanites, who refused to bow before religious icons, faced gruesome persecution. Zara-Yaqob had little success in eradicating non- Christian practices within the Christian faith.  4.7.8. Islam Promoted Integration, Unity and Collective Identity  Islam has played a crucial role in Ethiopia in uniting diverse groups who had either abandoned their indigenous beliefs or converted from other faiths to embrace the tenets of the Islamic faith.  There was regular contact between the various Muslim communities through trade, education, pilgrimage and movement of peoples.  4.5 External Relation 4.5.1. Relation with Egypt  Ethiopia and Egypt had long relation in different aspects, but in the 13th century onwards had more religious motives.  CXN kingdom asked Abun from the Coptic Church (since Yekuno-Amlak) and both acted as a protectorate of minority of religious in their respective region.  That means, CXN aimed to protect minority Christian at Alexandria, Egypt also minority Muslims in Ethiopia.  While, Egypt also wanted to secure the flow Blue Nile.  Cont’d  They had hostile relation after the Egyptian persecuted the Coptic Christian at Cairo and imprisonment of patriarchy  Then, CXN kings warned to divert the flow of Nile and mobilization of troops during Amde-Tsion and Sayfa-Arad, respectively.  Later, Egypt sent “True Cross”, while Ethiopia sent religious painting during King Dawit for harmonious relations.  Zara-Yaqob also requested letter to Egyptian Sultan to protect the Coptic Christian, but failed.  In addition, Egypt did not allow the reconstruction of the burnt church.  cont’d 4.5.2 Relations with Christian Europe In Medieval period, the relation between CXN kingdom and Christian Europe was influenced by the legend of “Prester John.” Then;  Ethiopian delegates were attained in different ceremony at Europe in 14thc onward.  European too, sent letters of request to CXN kingdom.  Among these, the letter of King Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D.  It addressed by the name of “Prester John.”  Cont’d  In fact, Christian Europe assumed that by the help of king “Prester John.”, it was possible to liberate Jerusalem from Ottoman Turkey.  Thus, Rome, Constantinople, Syria, Armenia and Egypt sent letter to king Dawit for such an aid.  In 15thc on, the CXN kings delegation to Europe were to ask artisan, as well as military, political and technical assistance.  Above all, the conflict between CXN and Muslim Sultanate had increased the relation of CXN kingdom with Christian Europe, particularly with Portugal.  Cont’d  As Portugal sent envoy in 1508, Queen Elleni also sent requested letter to Portugal for military assistance against Adal Sultanate.  Then, by using religious as a cover, the Portugal delegates arrived at the court of CXN in 1520 aiming to establish naval port against Ottoman Turkey in Red Sea area, but failed.