Ethiopian History: 19th Century Conflicts

External Relations, Challenges, and Threats

• Tewodros sought technological aid from European nations for modernization
• Lack of response from the British led to Tewodros detaining the British consul and other Europeans
• This resulted in a British military expedition that stormed and plundered Meqdela
• The British forces withdrew after securing the release of European captives

Battles of Gundet and Gura

• In 1875, Khedieve Ismael Pasha of Egypt launched a war against Ethiopia from three directions
• Mohammed Rauf Pasha occupied Harar in October 1875
• Swiss mercenary Werner Muzinger attempted to invade through Tajura but was ambushed by the Afar
• A Danish colonel, Arendrup, led another Egyptian force into Ethiopia, reaching the Mereb River

Battle of Gundet

• Emperor Yohannis IV mobilized an army of 20,000 to 25,000 men
• On November 16, 1875, the Ethiopians achieved a complete victory over the encircled Egyptian troops
• Colonel Arendrup and about 1,320 Egyptian soldiers were killed
• The Egyptians did not withdraw from Ethiopian territory despite this defeat

Second Expedition

• Khedieve Ismael launched a larger expedition in 1876 with 15,000 troops under Mohammed Ratib Pasha
• The second battle occurred from March 7 to 9, 1876, at Gura, leading to Ethiopian victory and capture of 2,500 Egyptian soldiers and heavy weapons

Consequences of the Battles

• Ethiopian victories did not lead to lasting peace due to continued Egyptian control over occupied territories
• Emperor Yohannis IV struggled to expel Egyptians from Massawa or Bogos
• Khedieve Ismael learned that annexation of Ethiopian territories through military force was unfeasible
• Captured Egyptian weapons helped Yohannis IV establish dominance over other regional lords

The Hewett (Adwa) Treaty of 1884

• Signing Parties: Emperor Yohannis IV of Ethiopia and British Admiral William Hewett

• Purpose: to facilitate the safe evacuation of Egyptian troops trapped in eastern Sudan via Ethiopia

• British promises included the return of Bogos to Ethiopia and making Massawa a free port for Ethiopia

• Emperor Yohannis IV honored the treaty by allowing the evacuation led by General Ras Alula Engeda

• The British failed to uphold their promises, allowing Italy to occupy Massawa

The Dogali Incident (1885)

• Italy, aided by the British, occupied Massawa and expanded into Eritrea
• The Italian attempt to control Mereb Melash was opposed by Emperor Yohannis IV and Ras Alula

Dogali Battle

• Date: 26 January 1887

• Ras Alula intercepted and defeated an Italian army of about 500 soldiers

• This was Italian forces first significant defeat by Ethiopian troops

• Italian response: Condemned the attack as unjust and demanded an apology from Emperor Yohannis IV

• Italy sought to occupy Keren, Assaurta, Habab regions, and reoccupy Saati and Wia

British Intervention

• Britain acted as a peace broker in favor of Italy
• Gerald Portal's Mission proposed an official Ethiopian apology for Ras Alula's attack, rejected by Yohannis IV
• Yohannis chose war over accepting the peace terms
• Ethiopia began preparations for conflict, mobilizing a large army of 80,000 soldiers in March 1888
• Yohannis advanced but returned without fighting due to Italian refusal to engage
• Concerns about Mahdist incursions and disloyal vassals influenced his decision to retreat
• Yohannis launched a punitive campaign against Gojjam and addressed the Mahdist threat in Metemma

The Battle of Metemma and Religious Division in Ethiopia

• Late 1880s: Emperor Yohannis faced multiple threats
• Mahadist soldiers attacked from the west, destroying churches and cities
• Italians occupied regions including Massawa and Wia
• Internal issues with vassals King Menilek of Shewa and Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam
• Yohannis postponed the war to address internal revolts

Battle of Metemma

• Date: March 9, 1889
• Ethiopian forces faced Mahadist troops
• Emperor Yohannis was fatally wounded, leading to a retreat
• Shift of power to Shewa with Menilek crowned Emperor Menilek II

Impact of the Battle

• Weakening of northern defenses allowed Italian expansion into Mereb Melash
• Italians proclaimed Eritrea a colony on January 1, 1890

Religious Division and Doctrinal Debates

• Monarchs believed in religious uniformity for national unity
• Yohannis IV attempted to enforce uniformity at the Council of Borumeda (1878)
• Muslims pressured to convert to Orthodox Christianity
• Rival Muslim chiefs, Imam Mohammed Ali and Imam Amede Liben, were given options to convert or lose power

The Battle of Adwa

• Relations between Menilek and Italians began in 1876 and culminated in the Treaty of Wuchale on May 2, 1889
• Article 17 of the Treaty led to misunderstandings regarding Ethiopian sovereignty
• Menilek abrogated Article 17 in February 1893

Adwa Campaign Phases

• Battle of Ambalage (December 7, 1895): Ethiopian forces led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu defeated Italians
• Siege of Mekelle (January 7-21, 1896): Ethiopians cut off water supply, forcing surrender
• Final Battle of Adwa (March 1, 1896): Major Ethiopian victory over Italians

Key Leaders in the Adwa Campaign

• Emperor Menilek II and Etege Tayitu
• Ras Mengesha Yohannes and Ras Alula Engda
• King Abba Jifar II of Jimma, Kawo Tona of Wolaita, Dejach Jote Tulu, and Dejach Gebre Egziabher
• Prominent Commanders were Ras Mekonnen, Fitawrari Gebeyehu, Ras Mikael, Negus Teklehaimanot, Ras Wolle Bitul, Dejach Balcha

Aftermath of the Battle of Adwa

• Ethiopian forces numbered around 100,000, with modern weaponry
• Italian losses: 7,000 men, 2,500 wounded, 3,500 captured
• General Baratieri ordered a retreat, two Italian generals died
• The Treaty of Addis Ababa nullified the Treaty of Wuchale (October 26, 1896) and recognized Ethiopian independence

Significance of the Victory of Adwa

• The victory was a crucial point in modern Ethiopian history
• The defeat led to the resignation of Italian Prime Minister Crispi
• The victory was significant not only for Ethiopia but also for African peoples and Black individuals, restoring Black dignity and pride internationally

Lessons Learned

• Demonstrated that Black people are not inferior to White people
• Inspired movements like Pan-Africanism, Ethiopianism, and Rastafarianism
• Showed that colonial powers could be defeated, encouraging anti-colonial movements
• Guaranteed Ethiopia's political independence despite Eritrea remaining under Italian control until 1941
• Established Ethiopia as the only recognized independent African nation during the colonial era
• Fostered a sense of unity among Ethiopians, showing that collective strength leads to invincibility

International Recognition

• The victory allowed Ethiopia to negotiate internationally recognized boundaries
• Emperor Menilek II signed treaties with colonial powers

Leaders of the Battle

• Ethiopian Forces were led by Emperor Menilek II and Empress Taytu
• Italian Forces were commanded by General Oreste Baratieri

Battlefields

• The battle took place near the town of Adwa in northern Ethiopia

The Birth of Eritrea as an Italian Colony: Key Points

• The Treaty of Wuchale was signed on May 2, 1889, between Menilek and Count Pietro Antonelli; Article 3 offten establishes Eritrea as an Italian colony
• The first contact between the Negus of Shewa and Italy began in 1876 with the Antinori mission
• The Rubatino shipping company purchased Assab from the local Afar Sultan in 1879
• Assab was transferred to the Italian government in 1882

Alliances

• Menilek provided a resting place at Let Marefya for the Italian mission
• Italians helped Menilek acquire firearms
• Treaty of Commerce and Friendship was signed in 1883
• A Convention of Neutrality was signed in 1887, Menilek agreed to remain neutral in the event of war

Motivations

• Menilek sought strengthen his position for the Throne through friendly relations with Italy
• Italians sought to colonize Ethiopia and viewed Menilek as a key ally

Article III of Wuchale Treaty

• Defined borders between Italian territories and the rest of Ethiopia, including villages
• The Italians wanted more lands

Ras Mekonnen's Role

• Ras Mekonnen was persuaded to sign a convention on October 1, 1889, which aimed to extend Italian claims towards the Mereb River

Occupation and Declaration

• Despite Menilek's protests, Italians occupied the entire Mereb Melash region
• Italy officially declared the establishment of the colony of Eritrea on January 1, 1890

Power Struggle among Ruling Elites, 1906-1935

• Emperor Menilek II suffered his first stroke in 1906 (died in 1913)
• Ras Mekonnen died in the same year
• Britain, France, and Italy signed The Tripartite Treaty to protect their interests in the Horn of Africa

Measures by Menilek II

• Menelik established the first Council of Ministers in October 1907
• Menelik designated his grandson, Lej Iyasu, as his legal successor in May 1909
• Ras Tesema Nadew was appointed regent for Lej Iyasu

Influence of Etege Taytu

• Etege Taytu opposed Lej Iyasu's succession and strengthened her political power through marriages which led to opposition from Ras Bitwoded Tesema Nadew and Fitawrari Habte Giorgis Dinegde
• Taytu was ultimately removed from power in a coup led by Fitawrari Habte Giorgis in 1910

Lej Iyasu's Rule (1911-1916)

• Lej Iyasu exercised political authority independently after the death of Ras Tesema
• He also introduced reforms, such as Promoting equal status for Ethiopian Muslims in administration, Supported the building of mosques, Implemented a municipal police force (Terenbule) and a Department of Education and Abolished inhumane practices

Controversial Religious Policies

• Lej tried to establish equality between Christians and Muslims
• He faced criticism for perceived favoritism towards Islam

Opposition and Downfall

• Lej was accused of immorality and irresponsible leadership
• Angered colonial powers due to his support for Somali nationalism during WWI
• Deposed on September 27, 1916, after a coup with patriarch Abune Mathewos
• Zewditu Menilek was named Empress, and Dejach Teferi Mekonnen became the heir

Key Battles and Leaders

• Battle of Segele (October 27, 1916): Lej Iyasu's father, Negus Mikael, was defeated which solidified the Shewan nobility's power
• Battle of Anchim (March 31, 1930): Ras Gugsa Wole was defeated and allowing Teferi Mekonnen to ascend as Emperor Haile Selassie I

Emergence of Autocracy (1930-1955)

• Haile Selassie was crowned Emperor on November 2, 1930
• He consolidated power through the 1931 Constitution
• Removed hereditary rulers
• Established the Imperial Bodyguard and Holeta Military Academy before the Italian invasion

Italian Aggression and the Patriotic Resistance: Causes and Courses of the War

• Italy sought revenge for its defeat at Adwa in 1896
• The invasion of Ethiopia began on October 3, 1935
• Italy's colonial interests in Ethiopia grew under Benito Mussolini and the Fascist Party powers in 1922
• With the aim to restore the glory of the Ancient Roman Empire the fascists invaded

Major Events

• The initial Invasion: Italian troops crossed the Mereb River on October 3, 1935, and entered Mekelle on November 8
• Emperor Haile Selassie appointed Ras Kassa Hailu as the commander of the northern front
• Commanded also were Ras Emeru Haile Selassie , Ras Mulugeta Yegezu, Ras Seyoum Mengesha

Tembien Battles

• Ras Kassa and Ras Seyoum engaged in two major but failed to halt the Italian advance

Battle of Endabaguna

• Ras Emeru's forces ambushed and defeated a group of Italian ascari

Battle of Amba Aradom

• Ras Mulugeta's forces were defeated by the Italians

Final Battle at Maychew

• Fought on March 31, 1936, with Emperor Haile Selassie I in command the Ethiopian army faced a well-fortified Italian army with air superiority and were defeated

Aftermath of the Battles

• Addis Ababa was capture by Italian after a brutal aerial bombardment

Southern Front Engagements

• Ethiopian forces under Ras Desta Damtew fought against Italian forces
• The Italians maintained air superiority and had a better army

International Response

• Ethiopia joined League of Nations in 1923, for assistance against Italian aggression
• Haile Selassie appealed for support in Geneva, the League imposed sanctions which were unhelpful

The Italian Occupation of Ethiopia

• Italian forces, led by Marshal Badoglio, entered Addis Ababa after Emperor Haile Selassie I's departs

• Badoglio was succeeded by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani

• Graziani faced an assassination attempt on February 19, 1937

• Due to attempt, Innocent civilians in and around Addis Ababa were killed by Graziani's forces

• After the Addis Ababa massacre Graziani was removed from power an d replaced by Aosta

• Fascist occupation lasted five years and was concentrated in major towns

• Left over effects such as buildings from occupation now traces of Italian Addis Ababa, Gondar, Dessie, Harar, and Jimma

• Addis Ababa was the capital of Italian East Africa, and so the were new urban settlement patterns, electricity, piped water, and the establishment of many factories

• During the period, Ethiopia was discarded, and included became part of the Italian East African Empire

• The Italian East African Empire was divided into six administrative regions, each with its own capital:

    1. Eritrea - Asmara
    2. Amhara - Gondar
    3. Oromo-Sidama - Jimma
    4. Addis Ababa - Addis Ababa
    5. Harar - Harar
    6. Italian Somaliland - Mogadishu
  

• The occupation was was helped the expansion of motor transport, that were used for operations

• The occupation saw marriages occur and increased prostitution

• The Italian controlled import-export trade in Ethiopia

The Patriotic Resistance and the War of Liberation

• The Italians occupied Addis Ababa after defeating Ethiopian troops and conventional fighting
• resistance was separated in two phases First Phase: Characterized by fighting and Second Phase: marked by guerrilla warfare

Key Figures in the First Phase

• Key figures who Lead such as Ras Derta Damtew and Dejach Beyene
• Others key figures like Mariam Gari Abune

Second Phase of Resistance

• occurred after guerrilla warfare

• The clergy got targeted which damage for churches also

• Guerrilla was resistance with participation from various Ethnic groups

• Collaborators Banda worked with the Italians