UNIT FOUR PHILO PDF Review

PHILOSOPHY E X A M R E V I E W LOCATION & TIME ST. MARY CSS | 2025 JANUARY 23 PRESENTATOR JOSIPA V.  UNIT ONE: FOUNDATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY PHILOSOPHY DERIVED FROM THE GREEK PHILEIN (LOVE) AND SOPHIA (WISDOM) “THE LOVE OF WISDOM” WISDOM...

PHILOSOPHY E X A M R E V I E W LOCATION & TIME ST. MARY CSS | 2025 JANUARY 23 PRESENTATOR JOSIPA V.  UNIT ONE: FOUNDATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY PHILOSOPHY DERIVED FROM THE GREEK PHILEIN (LOVE) AND SOPHIA (WISDOM) “THE LOVE OF WISDOM” WISDOM TO BE INSIGHTFUL OF HUMAN EXISTENCE AND THE CONCEPTS OF WHAT IS RIGHT, WHEN IT IS RIGHT, AND WHY AUTONOMY A PERSON'S ABILITY TO FREELY MAKE RATIONAL DECISIONS FOR THEMSELVES MATERIALISTS THE BELIEF THAT EVERYTHING THAT EXISTS IS MADE UP OF MATTER AND THAT ALL PHENOMENA, INCLUDING CONSCIOUSNESS AND THOUGHT, CAN BE EXPLAINED BY PHYSICAL PROCESSES AND INTERACTIONS. THALES OF MILETUS LIVED: 624 – 546 BCE LOCATION: MILETUS – A WEALTHY PORT CITY IN (ANATOLIA) MODERN TURKEY MILETUS WAS A WEALTHY PORT CITY THALES CAME FROM A WEALTHY FAMILY ALLOWING HIM TO LIVE A LEISURELY LIFE  WITH LEISURE PEOPLE WERE FREE TO FOCUS ON INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITY (PHILOSOPHY) INSTEAD OF DAILY WORK THALES’ OBSERVATIONS OF MANY NATURAL SUBSTANCES LED HIM TO BELIEVE THAT THEY SHARED MANY SIMILARITIES. “MANY WERE RELATED TO ONE ANOTHER BY THE ONE” ALL HAD AN UNDERLYING SUBSTANCE THAT WAS THE BASIS OF EVERYTHING THAT EXISTED IN NATURE. HIS OBSERVATIONS OF WATER TOLD HIM WATER APPEARS IN THREE FORMS: (SOLID, LIQUID, AND VAPOUR). THALES CONCLUSIONS WERE INCORRECT, INSTEAD OF WATER IT IS ENERGY. HE WAS THE FIRST PERSON IN HISTORY TO TRY TO EXPLAIN NATURAL PHENOMENAL USING REASON RATHER THAT SUPERSTITION AND MYTH. FIRST ORDER LANGUAGE A SPECIFIC STATEMENT OR QUESTION ABOUT AN OBSERVATION OR EVENT. SECOND ORDER LANGUAGE LANGUAGE THAT IS USED TO DISCUSS AND CLARIFY FIRST ORDER LANGUAGE. IT IS MORE GENERAL AND CAN ALSO BE CALLED HIGHER-ORDER LANGUAGE OR META-LANGUAGE.  SOCRATIC METHOD IS A QUESTION AND ANSWER PROCESS USED BY SOCRATES TO NARROW IN ON KNOWLEDGE BY CHALLENGING COMMONLY HELD ASSUMPTIONS. THOUGHT EXPIRIMENTS A TOOL USED BY PHILOSOPHERS TO ENCOURAGE PEOPLE TO RE-EXAMINE COMMON SENSE BELIEFS. THEY OFTEN BEGIN WITH THE STATEMENT “WHAT IF...” CRITICAL THINKING THINKING IS A PROCESS, AND ENCOURAGES PEOPLE TO EXAMINE & RE-EXAMINE BELIEFS THAT THAT REGARD AS COMMON SENSE.. PHILOSOPHY ARGUMENT A DEBATE BETWEEN TWO OR MORE PEOPLE WHO PRESENT REASONED IDEAS FOR THE PURPOSE OF DISCOVERING THE TRUTH SELF ACTUALIZATION ABRAHAM MASLOW: PROPOSED A PYRAMID-LIKE CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN NEEDS THAT CAN BE SUMMARIZED INTO TWO CATEGORIES: MAINTENANCE & SELF- ACTUALIZATION. SELF-ACTUALIZATION TOP OF THE PYRAMID AND FINDING FULFILMENT IN REACHING ONE’S OWN POTENTIAL. IT ALSO IS A DESIRE TO HELP OTHERS TO FIND FULFILMENT.  LOGIC/PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE THE SCIENCE OF THE LAWS OF THOUGHT AND THE SCIENCE OF REASONING. EXAMINE VALIDITY, LOGIC, FALLACIES OF ARGUMENT. METAPHYSICS METAPHYSICS DEALS WITH THE NATURE OF REALITY BY ASKING QUESTIONS. QUESTIONS: WHAT IS REALITY? WHAT IS REAL? WHAT IS THE SELF? WHAT IS THE MEANING OF LIFE? EPISTEMOLOGY GREEK WORD “EPISTEME” (KNOWLEDGE) EPISTEMOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF KNOWLEDGE OR WHAT IS WORTHY OF BELIEF BY A RATIONAL PERSON ETHICS EXAMINES QUESTIONS OF RIGHT/WRONG, GOOD/BAD, AND GOOD/EVIL. ETHICISTS EXAMINE CHARACTER TRAITS, VALUES AND MORALS, AS WELL AS ACTIONS AND DETERMINE WHICH ARE GOOD/BAD OR RIGHT/WRONG AESTHETICS PHILOSOPHY OF ART. “AESTHETIC” MEANS, CONCERNED WITH BEAUTY. WHAT IS ART? WHAT IS BEAUTY? WHAT DEFINES THESE? DO OBJECTIVE STANDARDS OF BEAUTY AND UGLINESS ACTUALLY EXIST SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY UTOPIA – PERFECT PLACE/SOCIETY EXAMINATION OF WHAT MAKES UP THE BEST SOCIETY AND THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE STATE AND THE INDIVIDUAL. QUESTIONS: WHAT ARE THE LIMITS OF THE STATE? SHOULD PEOPLE HAVE EQUAL RIGHTS? WHAT IS JUSTICE? WHAT IS THE PROPER BOUNDARY BETWEEN PUBLIC POLICY AND PRIVATE MORALITY  UNIT TWO PHILOSOPHY: LOGIC DEFINITIONS 05 EXPLAIN 04 ARISTOTLE AND 03 BOOLE EVALUATION FOR 02 ARGUMENTS LOGIC 01  01 LOGIC LOGIC LOGIC: derived from the Greek word logos which means speech or reason (reasoned speech) LOGICIAN LOGICIAN: Those who study logic and are concerned with well constructed arguments. LOGICAL CONSISTENCY Statements that do NOT contradict with each other. (Ex. My mother is 45 yrs old and married) LOGICAL CONTRADICTION Statements that DO contradict with each other. And violate Aristotle’s law of non-contradiction. (Ex. My mother is 45 yrs old and 25 yrs old). LOGICAL FALLACY LOGICAL FALLACIES: methods of argument that contains flaws in how conclusions are drawn. Once a logical fallacy is identified, the argument it makes is immediately weakened or negated (ignored).  Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that weaken arguments. They often seem convincing but are based on flawed logic. Here's a simplified explanation: -What They Are: Mistakes in reasoning that make arguments invalid. - What They Do: Mislead people by presenting faulty logic as if it were sound. - How They Work: They use tricks or errors in thinking to make an argument appear stronger than it is. For example, a common fallacy is the "straw man" fallacy, where someone misrepresents an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack. Another is the "ad hominem" fallacy, where someone attacks the person making the argument instead of the argument itself.  EVALUATION FOR 02 ARGUMENTS RELEVANCE determining whether the information or arguments have any bearing on the matters at hand. It is determined by: whether the info. provides knowledge about the topic, and whether the argument presented supports or negates a point of view. (irrelevance can be a weakness in an argument) EMPIRICAL VALUE Empirical info. can be verified or gained through the senses. Non-Empirical expresses beliefs, opinions, or values that cannot be verified through observation. EXAMPLE: ROSES Empirical: Roses are Red Non-Empirical: I like red roses the first statement can be verified, but the second one cannot because it’s an opinion not a fact! BIAS Tendency to view objects, people, or events from a particular point of view. Bias exists in all people; awareness of biases enables greater understanding of ideas (accurately). Origin of Bias: (upbringing, culture, experiences, emotional/mental nature) People usually are unaware of the biases they have due to immersion in these sources. Thus, accept them as truths. RELIABILITY Information and its source is reliable when it can be trusted. There are degrees or levels of reliability (credibility level of the source) -More trust is placed in those that have our best interests in mind -Less is placed in those that are viewed to have an agenda. In philosophy: ideas of famous philosophers are respected  ARISTOTLE AND 03 BOOLE ARISTOTLE’S THREE LAWS OF THOUGHT 1. The Law of Non-Contradiction: Something cannot be said both to be and not be at the same time and in the same respect. If something is true, it cannot also be false. [One cannot exist and not exist at the same time] 2. The Law of Excluded Middle: Something must either be or not be. It must be true or false, there is no third or middle possibility. [One either exists, or does not exist, there is no middle option] 3. The Law of Identity: Something is what it is. [A cat is a cat (true), A dog is a cat (untrue)] Aristotle’s laws of logic are still the basic tools today. Aristotle also developed rules for deductive reasoning.  GEORGE BOOLE GEORGE BOOLE DEFINITION George Boole was an English mathematician, philosopher, and logician, best known for his work in the field of algebraic logic. He created Boolean algebra, which is fundamental to the design of digital computer circuits and modern computer science2. His work laid the groundwork for the Information Age, making significant contributions to mathematics and logic. 19th/20thCentury: -Logic used in mathematics by George Boole who took logic in the direction of algebra. -Developed a system (Boolean logic) where all values in an algebraic expression can be reduced to values of true/false. -Boolean, has become the basis of computer language.  04 EXPLAIN VALIDITY VALIDITY: The correctness of the reasoning. In philosophy, validity refers to an argument where, if the premises are true, the conclusion must logically follow. It means the structure of the argument is such that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. Example of Validity over Truth: Example: (Immortality) Premise: All humans are immortal Premise: I am a human. Conclusion: I am immortal. Though the major premise is untrue, the argument is still valid because the conclusion follows logically from the premises. TRUTH TRUTH: refers to the truth of the contexts of the statements. Logicians are more concerned with the validity than the truth of a statement.  In philosophy, truth refers to the property of statements that accurately reflect reality or facts. It is the alignment between a proposition and the way things actually are. SOUNDNESS SOUNDNESS: Arguments in which the premises are true and the form is valid. This is the most effective form of argument. In philosophy, soundness refers to an argument that is both valid and has all true premises. This means that the conclusion logically follows from the premises, and the premises themselves are true. Example: All mice chase cats. Socrates is a mouse Therefore, Socrates chases cats. Explanation: Form of the argument is correct, thus the conclusion is “valid” The major premise “all mice chase cats” is untrue. The minor premise “Socrates is a mouse” is untrue Thus, the argument is based on faulty premises.  05 DEFINITIONS DEDUCTION DEDUCTION: (deductive logic) based on general reasoning, the process of drawing a specific conclusion from a general statement or premise. (big to little picture) INDUCTION INDUCTION: (inductive logic) based on inductive reasoning, the process of observing particular things and making generalizations (drawing general conclusions) about them. (little to big picture). ARGUMENT NOT a shouting match, a group of statements consisting of a premise or premises designed to justify a conclusion. PREMISE A factual statement or proposition, premises provide a reason for believing a conclusion. Ex. All humans are mortal. CONCLUSION A statement that follows from a premise or premises. SYLLOGISM A from of formal deductive argument developed by Aristotle. Can consist of premises that lead to a conclusion. INFERENCE A mental process when we move from premises to conclusions. (using existing information to develop new information). FORM Logic is concerned with the form of an argument. Logic is concerned with whether this form and the reasoning used to formulate statements and arrival at a conclusion is correct. (Reasoning - involves the ability to understand connections, use inference indicators, and make inferences).  FINAL EXAM REVIEW PHILOSOPHY DEFINITIONS EXPLAIN ES RI EO TH star = potential long answer question  DEFINITIONS EPISTEMOLOGY The philosophical study of knowledge and of how we know anything. GREEK: episteme (knowledge) and ology (the study of) PRIORI Latin word for “from before” this is knowledge that is gained before the senses experience things Priori are not dependent on the evidence provided by the senses, but is derived strictly from reason (mind). POSTERORI AUTHORITY Latin word for “from after” A source of knowledge that knowledge that depends on evidence recommends, justifies, or presented by the senses or experience. accepts an idea as true. it is dependent on evidence from the Much of the knowledge senses. which we have accepted is form of empiricism based on some source of authority. DOGMATISM The acceptance of an idea without question or doubt. These ideas are accepted absolutely and with certainty.  DEFINITIONS SCEPTICISM It is the calling of knowledge into doubt. SCEPTICAL RELAVISTS: Believes there are more than one truth for any issue. ABOSULUTE SCEPTICS: Believes that we can know very little about the world with certainty. COSMOLOGY The study of the natural world and the universe. Questions posed by the “Naturual Philosophers” initiated the study of philosophy. NATURAL SOPHISTS PHILOSOPHERS A group of ancient Greek teachers and intellectuals Lived in the Mediterranean region who were known for their before the time of Socrates. skill in rhetoric and 1) Of what is the Natural world made argumentation. of? They believed there was no 2) To what degree do things remain the true or single form of same over time and to what degree do knowledge, and that the all things change? truth was whatever someone could make them believe These are the central questions of through arguments Natural Philosophers (relativism). Plato disagreed, argued that there can only be a single moral truth. SCIENCE Derived from Latin “Scientia” which means knowledge. Branches of Science: physcial, Life and social.  DEFINITIONS TAOISM Means “The way,” the deep and mysterious process from which all things arise and which shapes all of life. The Taoist way is to live and exist as a part of that natural process. EXPLAIN PLATOS THEORY QUESTION OF OF FORMS FORMS Plato argued that each example of an How is it possible to have an object in the universe was a visible, idea of something, but not copy of the more “eternal idea” or tied to a specific example? “form” the form and the object exist EXAMPLE: separately. a triangle vs. the idea of a Plato argued that the purpose of triangle. learning was to comprehend the idea or form of a thing rather than a specific example of it. PLATOS THEORY OF FORMS (CONT.) When we understand the form of something, we have complete knowledge of it. This is how we make the link between the specific object and the form.  EXPLAIN DESCARTES CERTAINTIES OF TRUTH There was three truths Descartes was certain of he proved that 1) He existed 2) God existed 3) external objects exist CERTAINTY OF GOD His thoughts informed him that God is an infinitely independent, all knowing and all-powerful being. Believed that the idea of “God” came from “God” because and imperfect being such as himself could not have developed such an idea of perfection. SOURCES OF INFO CERTAINTY Philosophy's Goal: Seeks truth and certainty. Traditional Sources: OF SELF 1. Philosophical authorities. Seek out one solid certainty 2. Ideas of everyday people. upon which he could build 3. Information from the senses. knowledge. This certain truth - **Descartes' View**: was that he must “exist” - Rejected traditional sources as uncertain “For even in the act of and contradictory. doubting everything, there is - Concluded that all knowledge begins with a being who doubts” ideas in the mind. “I think, therefore I am” - Believed it was possible to doubt virtually (LATIN: Congo ergo sum) everything. CERTAINTY OF OBJECTS Asked if objects of the external physical world existed. Are physical objects an illusion? Are human beings being fooled? Descartes concluded no, because God is perfect and would not attempt to fool or deceive us. Therefore objects exist.  RATIONALISM Rationalism: Views knowledge as something that occurs largely within the human mind. Supporter: Descartes Emphasizes the importance of reason in finding truth EMPIRICISM Empiricism: Knowledge is acquired by using the sense, and interpreting what comes to us through those senses. Supporters: Locke, Berkeley, and Hum TYPES OF AUTONOMY RATIONALISM AND Extreme Rationalism: All human knowledge is based on reason and RATIONALISM Autonomy & Rationalism: We the senses are not must process our own important information individually and Moderate Rationalism: think critically rather than Recognizes that some information must just accept ideas from come from senses for the others. mind to have something to work from. The mind’s processes help to process the information gained. Must explore the world with our “understanding” to acquire new knowledge. CAUTION AGAINST RATIONALISM Caution Against Rationalism The use of rational thought will only distort what is perceived by the senses. Locke views the mind as a blank slate which experiences are written upon  DESCARTES Intuitive Certainty: Believed that we can be certain of a truth when we recognize it intuitively, absolutely, and without question Deductive Reasoning: Used to move with certainty from one truth to another Deductive reasoning means that if you accept a statement or premise, then you must accept its deductive conclusion. DAVID HUME David Hume, an empiricist, believed that ideas originate from sensory experiences and divided the mind's contents into impressions (sensations, passions, emotions) and ideas (faint images of these in thought, reflection, and imagination). He argued that causality, the belief in one thing causing another, is derived from observing connections between events, but this connection exists only in our minds, not in the external world. JOHN LOCKE BERKELY John Locke rejected Descartes' notion of Critics of Locke argue that both primary and secondary qualities innate ideas, arguing instead that all must be interpreted through our knowledge comes from sensory experiences, senses and mind, leading to with the mind starting as a blank slate uncertainty about the external (tabula rasa) at birth. He distinguished world; objects only exist for us between primary qualities (inherent in because we perceive and think about them, making us aware only objects) and secondary qualities (perceived of the ideas in our minds. Berkeley's through the senses), and believed that idealism posits that objects exist as simple ideas from sensory input are ideas in our minds and are always combined by the mind to form complex perceived by God, while the uniqueness of perception highlights ideas and knowledge. that individual sensory experiences vary, affecting how we connect to the external world. JOHN LOCKE SUMMARY Ideas are not innate, rather are obtained through observation and reflection upon those observations. We play an active, analytical role in organizing our ideas. We classify, and collate sensory information into complex ideas. Must accept that some qualities may not be exactly what we think they a  EXAM REVIEW: UNIT FOUR ETHICS AND NATURE DEFINITIONS ETHICS THEORY AND EXPLAINING BY: JOSIPA V.  DEFINITIONS ETHICS The study of how to live life and how to treat other people. ABSOLUTE ETHICS Certain actions are always right or wrong, no matter the context or consequences. Moral principles are universal and unchanging. RELATIVE ETHICS The belief that moral principles and values are not absolute but vary depending on culture, context, or individual circumstances. INTENTION Intention refers to the mental state or purpose behind an action, reflecting the aim or goal that motivates an individual's behavior. CONSEQUENCE consequence is the result or effect that follows from an action, decision, or condition, often considered in ethical and logical analyses FREE WILL ree will refers to the ability of individuals to make choices and decisions independently, without being constrained by external forces or predetermined fate.  FATE fate refers to the idea that events are predetermined and inevitable, often believed to be controlled by a higher power or natural law STOICISM Stoicism is the belief that virtue, wisdom, and self- control are the keys to a good life, and that we should accept and remain indifferent to external events. CYNICISM cynicism is the belief that people are primarily motivated by self-interest and that virtue is the only good, often leading to a distrust of societal norms and conventions. EPICUREANISM Epicureanism is the belief that the pursuit of pleasure, particularly mental tranquility and freedom from fear, is the highest good, achieved through knowledge, friendship, and living a modest life. ESSENTIALISM Theory that says that the ability to “reason” is the distinguishing human feature CONSTRUCTIVISM constructivism is the view that knowledge and meaning are constructed through interactions with the world and are influenced by social contexts.  HUMANISM humanism is the belief that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, focusing on human potential and achievements, often rejecting supernaturalism. PSYCHOANALYSIS [analysis of the mind] – understanding one’s own unconscious mind and the instinctive drives that often motivate it NATURE VS. NURTURE Some philosophers believe our humanness is something that we are born with, while others believe we acquire it through experience and through learning. Behavioural psychologists have argued that the environment is the primary factor in shaping the human psyche. (Nurture) Sociobiologists argue that many qualities are inherited through genetics. This is articulated in the mapped genome (Nature  THEORY PRISONERS DILEMMA MATRIX There are two prisoners in jail There is enough evidence to convict BOTH of Crime X. The police know (but cannot prove) that the two committed Crime Z. To gain evidence for Crime Z, the police offer the two prisoners a deal designed to persuade them to testify against each other. Both prisoners are in isolation and cannot communicate with each other, neither knows how the other will respond If only ONE testifies, against the other, the one who testifies goes free while the other is sentenced to five years in prison. If both testify against the other, each will be sentenced to 3 years. If neither testifies, both will be convicted of Crime X and be sentenced to one year a piece. Rationale response: Betray the partner and testify by acting on your own interest by eliminating a 5-year sentence. (Hobbes’ view) Altruist response: Relationship (friend, family, acquaintance) may make the person choose an alternative view  PLATOS TRIPARTITE SOUL THEORY Each person is made up of three elements: 1) physical body [Appetitive] 2) spirit [Emotions] 3) Intellect [Reason] In the healthy soul the three elements are in balance and the person makes ethical decisions. In an unhealthy soul these elements are out of balance, leading to bad decisions, and unethical behavior. Example: If our desire for physical or emotional pleasures is stronger than intellect, our ideas/beliefs become skewed Body & Soul Body - is the material self we perceive through our senses. Soul - is the non-material contained within the body. Soul is composed of three parts: 1) Thoughts – which aspire to wisdom 2) Spirit – which makes us angry, excited or courageous 3) Appetites - which make us feel hunger, thirst, want Each part of the soul is important. Rational thought was the most important element of human existence. Interrelationship of the Parts of the Soul Used the analogy of a charioteer to illustrate the dynamics of soul. Charioteer is “reason” which controls the two horses of “spirit” and “appetites” Truest self, occurs when the reasoning charioteer rules over both the spirited and desire- based horses. We are free when our rational selves are in controL  ETHICS ARISTOTLE AND ETHICAL RELATIVISM Aristotle’s view of ethics was that of relativism whereby ethics is relative to the individual and the situation. Believed that ethical lifestyles vary from person to person and from one culture to another. Aristotle believed that we become ethical as a result of two major influences: 1) Knowledge we acquire & 2) habits that we develop. Knowledge acquired from: experience, life, people Ethics also develops through repetition of action (habit) While we may know what is right, there is still the element of action, of doing the right thing. ETHICAL RELATIVISM – there is no common, universal, or objective values. Moral values are developed by individual peoples, groups, or cultures to fit their unique conditions. Ancient Understandings of Ethical Relativism The Sophists – Sophists such as Protagoras advocated ethical relativism. Argued no absolute values exist for all times. Believed argument and rhetoric made action right/wrong. Good/evil begins with the judgement of the people involved Modern Understandings of Ethical Relativism Ethical relativism is widely accepted in modern world. Results from awareness of the world’s diverse lifestyles, cultures etc.  ETHICS FROM DEPTHS OF HUMAN PSYCHE FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE Extremely critical of most traditional ethics Focused on the psyche for the examination of ethics. The psyche had great power to drive people beyond ordinariness. II) BEYOND GOOD & EVIL II-A) Rejection of Other Philosophical Views of Ethics Nietzsche considered Utilitarianism the morality of the masses. Nietzsche was opposed to ideas of the principles of happiness and religious ethical ideas (Love thy neighbor). Nietzsche viewed these as attempts by people to protect themselves against dynamic and powerful individuals. Rejected morality of intentions (deontology) by arguing that the value of any action lays in the unintentional, especially those motives that are below the surface of the conscious mind. Nietzsche viewed all these ethical ideas as a weakening of society. Value of the Subconscious Drives and energy of the individual, especially the darkness and power of the unconscious forces & emotions must be respected. Believed that the strong & determined few in a society were essential for social progress. Conventional morality, he argued hampered these essential superior individuals. Believed in the emphasis of the dark, dangerous, and more passionate aspect of human existence.  EXPLAIN DEONTOLOGY Immanuel Kant emphasized considering the ethics of the action only, without considering the effect or consequences. Deontology means that it is necessary to carry out the actions based on principle or duty alone, without accounting for the consequences. Considers the ethics of the action separate of the consequences. Example: Always tell the truth regardless of the outcome. Deontology is an ethical theory that focuses on the morality of actions based on rules and duties rather than consequences. It asserts that certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of their outcomes. The most well- known proponent of deontology is Immanuel Kant, who argued that moral principles should be universal and that individuals have a duty to act according to these principles. Key concepts in deontology include: Duty: The obligation to perform certain actions based on moral rules. Moral Rules: Principles that define what is right and wrong. Intentions: The motivation behind an action, which is crucial in determining its morality.  TELEOLOGY – Consequences of action, not the action itself, determines ethical correctness. (teleos – Greek for end or goa Teleology is an ethical theory that focuses on the consequences or outcomes of actions to determine their morality. It asserts that the rightness or wrongness of an action is based on the goal or purpose it aims to achieve. The most well-known form of teleology is utilitarianism, which evaluates actions based on their ability to produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Key concepts in teleology include: - Consequences: The outcomes or results of actions are central to determining their moral value. - Goals/Purposes: Actions are judged based on their ability to achieve desired goals or purposes. - Utilitarianism: A form of teleology that emphasizes maximizing overall happiness and minimizing suffering. For example, according to teleology, lying might be considered acceptable if it leads to a positive outcome, such as protecting someone's feelings or preventing harm. The focus is on the results of actions rather than adhering to strict moral rules.  EXISTENTIALISM – The view of ethics based on the idea that each of us must create our own being and character. Must be done as individuals, each in our own situation and environment, through the decisions we make in life. We exist and are conscious of that existence. First we exist, then we identify who and what we are. Choice is fundamental in all human life. We choose who we are, what we think, and how we act. Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom, choice, and responsibility. It asserts that humans create their own meaning and purpose in life through their actions and decisions, rather than relying on external sources or predetermined paths. Key themes in existentialism include: - Freedom and Choice: Individuals have the freedom to make their own choices and must take responsibility for the consequences of those choices. - Authenticity: Living authentically means being true to oneself and one's values, rather than conforming to societal expectations. - Absurdity: Life can be inherently meaningless or absurd, and it is up to individuals to find or create their own meaning. - Existence Precedes Essence: The idea that individuals exist first and then define their essence or nature through their actions and choices.  ALTRUISM VS. EGOISM Altruism: The “unselfish” concern for other people. (Done entirely for the benefit of other people) Egoism: An ethical theory that says that people should act in “their own” best interests (selfish). Question: If people are motivated by the need to make themselves feel good, are their actions egoistic or altruistic HOBBES AND EGOISM English philosopher who published Leviathan, a book that sets out a harsh and negative view of humanity. The life of a human is: “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short” He describes people as: “aggressive, greedy, competitive, antisocial and vain.” Hobbes argues that everyone acts only to satisfy their own personal desires and that “self- interest” is a human’s true nature. “Anti-social” argument: Hobbes argues that all people are anti-social Socialization is motivated by a desire to “dominate” others Co-operation is motivated by self-interest (getting something out of the group) Altruism is only there to help soothe ones conscience.  BUTLER AND ALTRUISM Published: Fifteen Sermons Preached at Rolls Chapel which was a direct counter to Hobbes’ Leviathan Self-Interest & Benevolence: Butler emphasizes human virtue and the natural capacity for good. Butler acknowledges that humans have some self- interest and that it is normal for them to seek out their own good. Butler states that human nature includes “benevolence” which is a desire to do something good for someone else. Hierarchy: Butler argues that self-interest & benevolence do not conflict. Human nature is a “hierarchy” of attributes. Conscience Top of the hierarchy, Uniquely human, Key to making moral choices Butler states that people do good deeds because they desire to do so. The desire to do good deeds (altruistic acts) comes before the pleasure taken from doing those good deeds (self-interest). Excessive self-interest for one’s own happiness can actually lead to unhappiness HOBBES VS. BUTLER Do we perform good deeds to make ourselves feel better or to make others feel better? Are we selfish creatures or altruistic ones?  ALTRUISM VS. EGOISM Altruism: Altruism is the ethical principle that emphasizes selfless concern for the well-being of others. It involves acting in ways that benefit others, even at a personal cost. Altruistic actions are motivated by a desire to help others without expecting anything in return. Egoism: Egoism is the ethical principle that emphasizes self- interest as the foundation of moral behavior. It involves acting in ways that promote one's own well-being and interests. Egoistic actions are motivated by a desire to achieve personal benefits, even if it means disregarding the needs of others. These two concepts represent contrasting approaches to ethical behavior, with altruism focusing on others and egoism focusing on oneself.  UNIT FIVE: METAPHYSICS  METAPHYSICS ONTOLOGY Deals with the nature of being and reality. Ontology and determinism are related in that ontology, which studies the nature of being and existence, provides the foundational framework for understanding the entities and processes that determinism describes. Determinism relies on the ontological assumption that the universe operates according to consistent and predictable laws, where every event or state is the result of preceding causes. Essentially, ontology explores what exists, while determinism explains how those existing entities and events are interconnected through cause and effect. DETERMINISM theory that every event is determined by a chain of causes extending back in time. Determinism is the philosophical view that all events, including human actions, are determined by preceding causes and natural laws. It suggests that everything in the universe follows a predictable pattern based on cause and effect, leaving no room for free will or randomness. Determinists believe that given the state of the universe at any point in time, the future is already fixed and inevitable.  METAPHYSICS SUBSTANCE Something that has independent existence. The basic element of which things are made and may be either mental or material. Substance and determinism are related in that substance refers to the fundamental nature or essence of an entity, while determinism posits that the properties and behaviors of these substances are governed by causal laws. In other words, the inherent characteristics of a substance, along with external causes, determine the course of events and actions in a deterministic framework. ESSENCE The fundamental nature, unchanging blueprint, the thing that makes it what it is. Essence and determinism are related in that essence refers to the inherent nature or fundamental qualities of an entity, while determinism posits that these inherent qualities, along with external causes, determine the course of events and actions. In other words, the essence of an entity contributes to the predetermined outcomes described by determinism.  MIND AND BODY QUESTIONS Where does the real you exist? In the thoughts you are thinking? The memories of the past or plans of the future? In the physical body you occupy? Does the real you exist in your mind, body or both? DESCARTES THE MIND The mind is far greater than just a physical brain in a body. Mind contains a stream of thoughts, past, present & future. Question are: Where is the mind located? What is the relationship between the mind & body?  MIND AND BODY RELATIONSHIP Descartes: Viewed the mind & body as being distinct entities. Reasoned the mind was non-material and was where the individual’s identity resided. (Thoughts) Opposing View: Mind is the result of material event MIND AND BODY Believed mind & body were separate and made of two different elements. Mind – Essence of the mind consists of the fact that it can think, that it is indivisible and does not extend in space. Body – Essence of the body extends in space and is divisible.  MIND AND BODY SEPARATION Believed the real person (self) resided in the mind. Body was in union with the mind in that its sensations have an impact on the mind. The body does not constitute the true personal identity. INTERACTION Descartes believes mind & body are two separate substances How can the mind that has no physical substance interact with the body, which consists entirely of physical substance? Example: The mind tells an arm to move and it does.  MIND AND BODY CRITICISM The “separation” of mind & body have been attacked and rejected by some philosophers. Modern philosophers argue there is a stronger connection between body & mind, or that they are a single identity. Cannot adequately explain the interaction of the physical and non-physical. CONNECTION The mind-body connection in philosophy explores how mental states, such as beliefs and emotions, relate to physical states of the body. This relationship is central to debates on dualism, which posits that mind and body are distinct entities, and physicalism, which argues that mental states are entirely dependent on physical processes.  MIND AND BODY MATERIALIST VIEW Stance: There is no difference between mind & body. Mental events, like physical actions are combinations of matter. Belief that mind is primarily or completely physical in nature. CRITICISM Examination of ones thoughts (reflection), or the development of a new idea cannot be explained easily by Materialism. Can a combination of chemicals & electrical processes explain the mind fully? IDEALIST VIEW Reject materialist view. Thoughts and all things are basically mental, NOT physical. We think of things and create them in the mind. Thoughts do not exist in any way beyond or external to the mind. Thoughts cannot exist without the mind. Thoughts are products of the mind alone. INTERPRETATION Each of us constructs our individual view of the world rather than it being ready made in the mind. CRITICISM External conditions can shape our thoughts e.g. Pain = stubbing a toe. Views of the world can change with time.  MIND AND BODY GILBERT RYLE Criticism of Descartes: 20th century British philosopher Gilbert Ryle is a critic of Descartes. Believed there was no separation between the observable world of matter and the private inner mind. Criticism: Does not explain subjective experience and consciousness Examples: What is it like to think a thought, or smell a rose? Views It is impossible to observe the thoughts taking place in the mind. They occur within the mind and cannot be observed. We are only able to observe the behavior of humans. Conclusions can only be restricted to behaviors that can be observed. Example: Error – “That person is in an angry or thoughtful state of mind” Correct – “That person behaves in an angry or thoughtful way” Can observe the behavior, NOT the state of mind. THE SELF: THEORY BUNDLE Philosophers: Hume & Buddhist philosophers The “self” is a collection of bits and pieces of experience. Introspective thought presents: a collection of fleeting ideas, sensory impressions, fragmented memories, passing desires etc. Therefore: the “self” is a loose collection of perception. Bundle theory connects to determinism by positing that objects are merely collections of properties, and these properties, along with external causes, determine the course of events and actions in a predictable manner. EXPLAINED According to this theory, an object is defined by the set of properties it possesses, such as color, shape, and size, rather than by a distinct substance that holds these properties together. Key aspects of bundle theory include: Properties: Objects are composed entirely of properties, and there is no underlying substance that exists independently of these properties. Identity: The identity of an object is determined by the specific combination of properties it has. No Substratum: Unlike substance theory, bundle theory denies the existence of a substratum or underlying entity that supports properties. THE SELF: THEORY NARRATIVE Self is defined by narrative structure and unity. People make sense of their life experiences by narrating them. Story places them at the center & links them to the stories of others. The unity of the narrative results in the unity of the “Self” Narrative theory relates to determinism by suggesting that individuals' life stories and identities are shaped by predetermined factors, such as their environment and experiences, leading to predictable patterns and outcomes. EXPLAINED Narrative theory is a philosophical and literary concept that explores how individuals construct and understand their identities and experiences through stories. Storytelling: Individuals use stories to interpret and communicate their experiences. Identity: Personal identity is shaped by the narratives people create about themselves. Meaning-Making: Narratives help individuals make sense of their lives and find meaning in their experiences. Cultural Context: Stories are influenced by cultural, social, and historical contexts, shaping how individuals perceive and narrate their experiences. THE SELF: THEORY PROJECT Proposed: Jean-Paul Sartre The “Self” is thought of in temporal terms, more as an event in time than as a thing. Self is dynamic and future oriented Person is in a state of constant active construction. The self is not ready-made or follows instructions of construction. Project theory relates to determinism by positing that individuals' actions and goals are shaped by predetermined factors, such as their environment and past experiences, leading to predictable outcomes. EXPLAINED Project theory is a philosophical concept that suggests individuals define their identity and purpose through their projects, goals, and commitments. It emphasizes that our actions and choices are driven by the projects we undertake, which shape our sense of self and give meaning to our lives. An example of project theory in action is an individual who dedicates their life to environmental conservation. By committing to various projects, such as organizing clean-up drives, advocating for policy changes, and educating others about sustainability, they shape their identity and find purpose through these meaningful endeavors. THE SELF: ILLUISION DAVID HUME The idea of the self is not based on any one experience or impression. There is no awareness of any specific object that can be identified as the self. Humans are simply bundles of rapidly succeeding perceptions. All we can really experience and be aware of are sensory impressions of things of the moment. Humans simply connect these individual sensory impressions and conclude that they are conscious of a continuing self. EXPLAINED David Hume, a Scottish philosopher, argued that the concept of the self is an illusion. According to Hume, what we consider the "self" is merely a bundle of perceptions, such as thoughts, feelings, and experiences, that are constantly changing and do not constitute a permanent, unchanging entity. He believed that there is no underlying substance or core self that remains the same over time. Instead, the self is a collection of fleeting impressions and ideas that we mistakenly perceive as a unified, continuous identity. THE SELF: ENDURING JOHN LOCKE Are you the same person you were ten years ago? You do not look the same, sound the same, or think the same. Over 10 yrs, the body replaces all the cells in the body. We hold to the idea of an “enduring self” or personal identity. Enduring Self: Human identity is based on mental life, thought, consciousness, and especially memory. Our personal identity consists of the life events that occur throughout it. Did not believe that a specific physical or bodily existence is necessary for personal identity. Consciousness and self-awareness are the essential characteristics of personal identity. The idea of continuity develops through memory EXPLAINED John Locke, an influential philosopher, argued that the self is enduring and continuous over time. He believed that personal identity is based on consciousness and memory, meaning that the self persists as long as an individual can remember past experiences and recognize them as their own.  REALITY IDEALISM View that there are differences between mind and matter and that the mind is central to understanding reality. Plato: Believed in a distinction between appearance & reality. Believed that which is experienced (senses) is not the ultimate reality and that only reasoning allows us to understand what is real. Big Question: What is the relationship between our ideas of things and the things themselves? Idealism relates to determinism by suggesting that the mind's perceptions and ideas, which shape our understanding of reality, are influenced by predetermined factors and causal laws. EXPLAINED Idealism raises important questions about the relationship between our ideas of things and the things themselves, challenging us to consider how our perceptions shape our understanding of the world. Mind-Dependence: Reality is dependent on the mind and its perceptions. What we perceive as the external world is shaped by our mental processes. Distinction Between Appearance and Reality: Idealists, like Plato, argue that the sensory experiences we have are not the ultimate reality. Instead, true reality is accessible through reasoning and intellectual insight. Ideas as Primary: Ideas and mental constructs are considered more fundamental than physical objects. The physical world is seen as a manifestation of these underlying ideas.  REALITY MATERIALISM Assumes a material reality that exists beyond our knowledge, a reality waiting to be discovered. Aristotle – believed that experience was in fact the best way to understand the truth of this reality. Big Question: What are the principles that shape all things in the world? Materialism relates to determinism by positing that all phenomena, including human actions and thoughts, are the result of physical processes and natural laws, leading to predictable outcomes. EXPLAINED Physicalism: The belief that only physical substances and their properties exist, and everything can be reduced to physical explanations. Mind-Body Relationship: Materialists argue that mental states are the result of physical processes in the brain and nervous system. Rejection of Immaterial Entities: Materialism denies the existence of non-physical entities, such as souls or spirits, and focuses on the material aspects of reality. Materialism contrasts with idealism, which emphasizes the primacy of the mind and ideas in understanding reality.  REALITY MYSTICISM Reality cannot be understood either through the senses or through reasoning. Can only be understood through intense spiritual experience. Challenges the assumption that there is a separate world of reality beyond the conscious self. Big Question: Why do we believe in an independent world of sense experience? Mysticism relates to determinism by suggesting that the experiences and insights gained through mystical practices are influenced by predetermined factors and causal laws. EXPLAINED Direct Experience: Mystics seek to experience the divine or ultimate reality directly, often through meditation, contemplation, or other spiritual practices. Transcendence: Mysticism involves transcending the limitations of the physical world and ordinary consciousness to access higher states of awareness. Unity: Mystics often describe a sense of oneness or unity with the divine, the universe, or all living beings. Ineffability: Mystical experiences are often described as beyond words or language, making them difficult to fully articulate or explain. Mysticism can be found in various religious and spiritual traditions, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and indigenous spiritual practices. REALITY: FORMED BY REASON DESCARTES Descartes rejected the use of senses to understand reality. truth is discovered through the mind and rational thought. He doubted anything but “God exists and he is perfect” and “The mind exists” 1. The material world exists we experience and believe in the existence of a real material world. God is perfect and would not deceive our reality. 2. Nature of material reality The material world is different from the mind which is a “thinking substance” Certainties of material objects: occupy space, posses shape, size etc. 3. conclusions there exists three major substances: Mind, God, and Material reality EXPLAINED René Descartes, a French philosopher, proposed that material objects exist independently of our perception and are characterized by their extension in space. He believed that the essence of material objects lies in their spatial properties, such as size, shape, and motion. Descartes argued that while our senses can deceive us, reason and mathematical principles allow us to understand the true nature of material objects. Geometric Shapes: Descartes believed that the essence of material objects lies in their spatial properties. For instance, a triangle's essence is defined by its geometric properties, such as having three sides and three angles that add up to 180 degrees. These properties exist independently of our perception and can be understood through reason and mathematical principles. REALITY: FORMED BY SENSES JOHN LOCKE Idealism: The mind is central to reality, and all things are based on mind and ideas. Objective Idealists believe that while the mind creates images of objects and ideas, these things do exist in some form in the external world. Locke's Ideas on Mind and Matter: Mind & Matter: Locke believed that mind and matter are distinct substances. Matter includes size, shape, color, position, sound, and movement, while the mind thinks, wills, denies, and doubts. Knowing: The mind exists within the knower, and matter is involved in the act of knowing. What is known in the mind is a mental representation of what exists externally. Different beings have different mental representations of the same object. Certainty of External Reality: Locke believed matter has primary qualities (size, shape, movement) that exist independently of observers and secondary qualities (fragrance, warmth, color) that depend on observers. Our sensory awareness filters our understanding of the world, and the senses are the only true means to gain understanding of reality. Matter: A red apple's size, shape, and color are properties of matter. Mind: Deciding to eat the apple involves the mind's thinking and willing. Knowing Mental Representation: A bee and a human see the same flower differently due to their unique sensory perceptions. Certainty of External Reality Primary Qualities: The apple's size and shape exist independently of observers. Secondary Qualities: The apple's fragrance and color depend on observers' perceptions.  TIME PERCEPTION Perceptual time – time as we experience it Our perception or experience of time seems to vary from one situation to another Question: Does the actual movement of time vary with experience EXPLAINED Presentism: This theory posits that only the present moment is real, and the past and future do not exist. Our perception of time is a series of present moments. Eternalism: According to this view, past, present, and future events are equally real. Time is like a dimension, and all points in time exist simultaneously. Growing Block Theory: This theory suggests that the past and present are real, but the future is not. The "block" of time grows as new present moments are added. Subjective Time: Some philosophers argue that time is a subjective experience, influenced by our consciousness and mental states. Our perception of time can vary depending on factors like attention, emotions, and activities.  TIME CONCEPTION Conceptual time - Time as we think about it, even as we try to understand what it means. We know that it is difficult to define time Three major positions on viewing time: 1) Time is Absolute – independent of events and moving with unchanging regularity 2) Time is Dependent on events and varying with those events 3) Time does not Exist EXPLAINED Presentism: Only the present moment is real. The past and future do not exist, and our perception of time is a series of present moments. Eternalism: Past, present, and future events are equally real. Time is like a dimension, and all points in time exist simultaneously. Growing Block Theory: The past and present are real, but the future is not. The "block" of time grows as new present moments are added. Subjective Time: Time is a subjective experience influenced by our consciousness and mental states. Our perception of time can vary depending on factors like attention, emotions, and activities.  TIME ABSOLUTE The idea that time is independent of events Absolute time stops for nothing and no one, moving forward at its own constant pace. Isaac Newton: Believed in absolute time because he saw time as a detached, impartial container through which events occurred. Believed time was measured identically by all observers in the universe. Time was unaffected by events and could also be empty. Einstein: Theory of relativity counters Newton’s view. Absolute time relates to determinism by positing that time flows uniformly and independently of events, allowing a predictable sequence of events. EXPLAINED Uniform Flow: Time progresses at a constant rate, regardless of any changes in the physical world. Independence: Time exists independently of events, objects, and observers. It is an external framework within which events occur. Newtonian Time: Sir Isaac Newton was a prominent advocate of absolute time. He believed that time is an absolute entity that flows uniformly, providing a consistent backdrop for all physical phenomena. Absolute time contrasts with relational theories of time, which argue that time is dependent on the relationships between events and objects.  TIME RELATIVE Relative concept of time connects time to events as they occur. Two types: Subjective relativity – links time to the observer. Objective relativity – relates the concept to time to the events or changes that occur within a specific time frame. Therefore time happens because events happen & if events ceased to happen, then time would be nonexistent. Relative time relates to determinism by suggesting that the perception and measurement of time depend on the observer's frame of reference, which can influence the predictability of events. EXPLAINED Observer-Dependent: Time is not absolute and can vary depending on the observer's motion and position. Einstein's Theory of Relativity: Albert Einstein's theory of relativity introduced the idea that time is relative. According to this theory, time can slow down or speed up depending on the relative velocity of the observer and the presence of strong gravitational fields. Time Dilation: An example of relative time is time dilation, where time appears to pass more slowly for an object moving at high speeds compared to an object at rest. This phenomenon has been confirmed through experiments with atomic clocks on fast- moving aircraft and satellites.  CAUSALITY CAUSE Hume – There is no such thing as a cause, only the expectation that one event will follow another. We see the “sequence” but not the “cause” Question – How does one event that we call “cause” bring about another event that we call “effect”? Question – Is there some necessary connection between the two events? Perhaps the universe just evolves from one state to another, and human beings try to explain this evolution by arbitrarily creating the concept of cause. Scientists argue that they cannot predict cause & effect with absolute certainty, but instead probability. EXPLAINED Hume's View: David Hume argued that there is no inherent cause, only the expectation that one event will follow another. Aristotelian Causation: Aristotle proposed four types of causes: material, formal, efficient, and final. Kant's View: Immanuel Kant believed that causation is a fundamental category of human understanding imposed by our minds. Modern Scientific View: Scientists approach causation in terms of probability and statistical relationships, rather than absolute certainty.  CAUSALITY FATE Fate, also known as destiny, refers to the idea that events in life follow a predetermined course, often beyond human control. Philosophers have debated the nature of fate and its implications for free will and determinism. Stoicism: The Stoics believed that human decisions and actions ultimately follow a divine plan devised by a god. They argued that while humans have free will, their lives are part of a universal network of fate. EXPLAINED Epicureanism: The Epicureans challenged the Stoic view by denying the existence of divine fate. They believed that human actions are voluntary as long as they are rational. Arthur Schopenhauer: Schopenhauer viewed destiny as a manifestation of the "Will to Live," which can be both living fate and a choice to overcome fate through art, morality, and asceticism. Friedrich Nietzsche: Nietzsche embraced the concept of "Amor fati" (love of fate), suggesting that individuals should accept and love their fate as part of their will to power  CAUSALITY FREE WILL Assumption – We have the freedom to make decisions & control our own lives. Reality – Part of a universe that operates in ways that are beyond our control and that has an impact on us in many ways. Debate – Freedom to make live choices vs. actions being governed by external forces & circumstances beyond our control. Free will in philosophy refers to the ability of individuals to make choices that are not determined by prior causes or external constraints. It is the concept that humans have the capacity to act independently and make decisions based on their own volition. EXPLAINED René Descartes: Descartes believed in the freedom of the will, arguing that humans have the ability to make choices independent of external causes. Jean-Paul Sartre: Sartre, an existentialist, emphasized that humans are condemned to be free, meaning they must take responsibility for their choices and actions. Immanuel Kant: Kant argued that free will is a necessary condition for moral responsibility, and that humans have the capacity to act according to moral laws they set for themselves. David Hume: Hume believed in compatibilism, the idea that free will and determinism are not mutually exclusive, and that humans can have free will even in a determined universe.  CAUSALITY DETERMINSIM Determinism – the view that our actions are determined by forces beyond our control. Determinism Type 1: Natural Forces Since all things are caused by events that precede them, any action can only be the result of previous conditions. Looks to natural & physical forces in the universe that shape our destinies in the same way as they shape other natural objects. Determinism type 2: Unknown Forces: Unknown forces (God or fate) control our destinies Goes beyond the natural universe to find an explanation for all events. Example: karma in Buddhism & Hinduism EXPLAINED Determinism is the philosophical concept that all events, including human actions and decisions, are determined by preceding causes and natural laws. According to determinism, everything that happens is the result of a chain of events and conditions that can be traced back to prior causes. Predictability: If all conditions and causes are known, future events can be predicted with certainty. Implications for Free Will: Determinism raises questions about the existence of free will, as it suggests that human actions are predetermined by prior causes. Determinism has been a topic of debate among philosophers, with some arguing that it is compatible with free will (compatibilism) and others asserting that it negates the possibility of free will (incompatibilism).  CAUSALITY NATURAL DETER. Theory proposed by Pierre Laplace III-A) Interconnected Universal Causality Argues that every event is connected with all previous events by “universal causality.” Thus, the universe is a complete and integrated system. Human belief in chance arises from our ignorance of the causes. Human Actions: Freedom is an illusion; human action is driven by motives. Belief in choice is the result of ignorance of hidden causes leading them to choose one option over the other. Nothing avoids the universally necessary chain of causality. EXPLAINED Role of God: Only a complete intelligence (God) would have the ability to provide a formula that explained the universe (past, present, future). Human beings are only beginning to devise general laws to explain events. Modern Application of Determinism: Genetic Blueprint Theory – Actions in later life are determined by a genetic blueprint outlined at conception. Reinforced Experiences – Character is determined by childhood events & inform future actions. Natural determinism is the philosophical concept that all events in the natural world, including human actions, are determined by natural laws and preceding causes. It suggests that everything that happens is a result of a chain of events governed by the laws of nature, leaving no room for randomness or free will.  CAUSALITY LIBERTARIANISM Libertarianism – Belief that we have free will & we can make free choices in life. Existentialist philosophers – argue that a person must accept this freedom and the responsibility associated with it. Jean-Paul Sartre was one of the strongest supporters of this view. Sartre’s Views: A human being has conscious plans, purposes, and intentions, plotting a course from a given situation to a future possibility The “stage” is never set unalterably for human beings. To be “constrained” by external circumstances only conceals your decision to interpret things in a certain way EXPLAINED Free Will: Libertarians argue that individuals have the genuine ability to make choices and that these choices are not predetermined. Moral Responsibility: Because individuals have free will, they are morally responsible for their actions. Incompatibilism: Libertarianism is a form of incompatibilism, which holds that free will and determinism cannot coexist. If determinism is true, then free will does not exist, and vice versa Libertarianism in philosophy is the view that humans possess free will and that our actions are not determined by prior causes or natural laws. Libertarianism contrasts with determinism and compatibilism, emphasizing the importance of human freedom and autonomy in shaping our actions and decisions.  CAUSALITY COMPATIBILISM Also known as soft determinism. Attempts to reconcile freedom with determinism Compatibilism: Outside forces do indeed act on human beings. An Individual’s action is still free when it is caused by a decision made as a result of that person’s beliefs and wishes. We are held responsible for some of our actions and not for others. Example: If we intentionally break the law, we are held accountable. If we unintentionally break the law, we are not held accountable. Intention is a determining factor EXPLAINED Compatibilism is the philosophical view that free will and determinism are not mutually exclusive and can coexist. Free Will and Determinism: Compatibilists argue that individuals can have free will even in a determined universe, as long as their actions align with their desires and intentions. Moral Responsibility: Compatibilism maintains that individuals can be held morally responsible for their actions, as they have the capacity to act according to their own motivations and choices. Compatibilism offers a middle ground between strict determinism and libertarianism, suggesting that human freedom and determinism can be reconciled.  GOD TELEOLOGICAL Complexity of the Universe: The universe and human beings (all of creation) is of infinite complexity. This complexity suggests there must be some design (order) to it Teleological Argument (Defined): Based on the evidence of design & purpose. Premise is the conviction that a universe of such complex and regular design could not possibly have appeared spontaneously Only the hand of a master creator (God) could have devised such a world. Criticism: David Hume – believed the universe was by chance Modern Science – Now able to explain some of that complexity in the universe, without resorting to divine explanations EXPLAINED The teleological perspective, also known as the argument from design, posits that the existence of God can be inferred from the apparent order, purpose, and design in the universe. Design and Purpose: The complexity and functionality of natural phenomena suggest the presence of an intelligent designer. For example, the intricate structure of the human eye or the precise conditions required for life on Earth indicate purposeful design. Analogy: Philosophers like William Paley used the analogy of a watchmaker, arguing that just as a watch's complexity implies a watchmaker, the universe's complexity implies a divine creator. These arguments support the idea that the universe's order and purpose are best explained by the existence of an intelligent designer, often identified as God.  GOD COSMOLOGICAL Causal Argument (Defined) Everything in existence must have a cause. All things that move or change do so because of some preceding event that effects change. Therefore: there must be a “first” or “primary” cause behind everything. Support for Primary Cause: Lack of a “first” cause creates two possible results: 1) There exists no concept of beginning, so time recedes infinitely into the past. (never ending past) 2) If there is no first cause, there can be no subsequent events. Criticism: Hume – Argued that there is no evidence that a first cause exists. (Argued that there was nothing wrong with an infinite progression) Kant – Not necessary for all things in the universe to have a cause. EXPLAINED The cosmological perspective, also known as the cosmological argument, posits that the existence of God can be inferred from the existence and nature of the universe. First Cause: The argument suggests that everything in the universe has a cause, and there must be a first cause that is uncaused. This first cause is often identified as God. Contingency: The argument states that everything in the universe is contingent, meaning it depends on something else for its existence. There must be a necessary being that exists independently and provides the basis for the existence of all contingent beings. This necessary being is often identified as God. These arguments support the idea that the existence and nature of the universe point to the existence of a higher power or divine creator.  GOD ONTOLOGICAL Relies on the human definition of God and human reasoning about what the definition means. St. Anselm (God is Perfect): God is defined as “Perfect” God is greater than any other being we can imagine. If God were not supremely perfect, another even greater supremely perfect being must exist, and so on; thus there would be an infinite progression of increasingly superior beings which is an impossibility. God is “Pre-eminence”: Belief held by yoga system of Patanjali God is pre-eminent and without any equal to excel it. God is the uttermost limit of real and existing perfection. Criticism: Thomas Aquinas – Argued that the establishment of God’s existence should precede any discussion of perfection as one of his characteristics. EXPLAINED The ontological perspective, also known as the ontological argument, posits that the existence of God can be deduced from the very concept of God. Anselm's Argument: Saint Anselm of Canterbury proposed that God is "that than which nothing greater can be conceived." If God exists only in the mind, then a greater being could be conceived to exist both in the mind and in reality. Therefore, God must exist in reality. Modal Ontological Argument: This modern version, proposed by philosophers like Alvin Plantinga, suggests that if it is possible for a maximally great being (God) to exist, then such a being exists in some possible world. If a maximally great being exists in some possible world, it must exist in every possible world, including our own. FINISHED! GOOD LUCK STUDYING!!