Motivation, Self-Concept, and Attributions PDF

Unit 4 Motivation, Self-Concept, and attributions Psychology of Education Professor Lorena Combadiera Degree in Psychology INDEX CONTENTS 1. What is Motivation? 2. Perspectives on Motivation 3. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation, Attributions...

Unit 4 Motivation, Self-Concept, and attributions Psychology of Education Professor Lorena Combadiera Degree in Psychology INDEX CONTENTS 1. What is Motivation? 2. Perspectives on Motivation 3. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation, Attributions, Mastery Motivation and Mindset, Expectations & Delay of Gratification. 4. Attribution Theory. 5. How can we help students change their attributions? 6. Children with Disabilities. 7. Self-concept & Self-esteem. 2  “The best time to plant a tree was 20 years ago. The second best time is now.” QUOTES. ―Chinese Prover “Don’t let yesterday take up too much of today.” — Will Rogers “Nature has given us all the pieces required to achieve exceptional wellness and health, but has left it to us to put these pieces together.” —Diane McLaren “We need to accept that we won’t always make the right decisions, that we’ll screw up royally sometimes―understanding that failure is not the opposite of success, it’s part of success.” 3 ―Arianna Huffington 1. Motivation 1.1 Definition Motivation comes from the Latin “movere” which means “to move”. Motivation involves the processes that energize, direct and sustain behaviour. Life is a gift... Accept it. Life is an adventure... Dare it. Life is a mystery... Unfold it. Life is a struggle... Face it. Life is a puzzle... Solve it. Life is an opportunity... Take it. Life is a mission... Fulfill it. Life is a goal... Achieve it. 4 1. Motivation 1.1 Definition Motivation in the educational field, refers to the student's interest in their own learning or in the activities that lead to it. It constitutes a preliminary step to learning and is its engine. Motivation in the classroom is related to why students behave in a certain way and the extent to which their behaviour is energetic, directed, and sustained. Motivation is present if, despite encountering obstacles in writing, a task, or solving a problem, the student persists and overcomes the difficulties. THE MORE SUCCESS A PERSON ACHIEVES, THE MORE MOTIVATION THEY WILL EXPERIENCE. 5 1. Motivation 1.2 Perspectives Of Motivation The The Behavioral Cognitive Perspective Perspective The The Social Humanistic Perspective Perspective 6 1. Motivation The Behavioral Perspective 7 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.3 Behavioural Perspective Importance of REINFORCEMENT OR PUNISHMENT ( Operant conditioning ). Incentives: positive or negative stimuli or events (they add interest or excitement to the class). MOTIVATION Direct attention toward appropriate behaviour and away from inappropriate behaviour. 8 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.3 Behavioural Perspective Problems of positive punishments: o Traumas. o Misstrut towards parents. o Can be useful for stopping bad behaviours but not for creating good ones. 9 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.3 Behavioural Perspective Incentives: o Numerical scores and letter grades or checkmarks or stars for competently completing work (provide feedback about the quality of the student’s work). o Giving students recognition—for example, certificates of achievement, diplomas, placing them on the honor roll, and verbally mentioning their accomplishments. o Allowing students to do something special—such as playing computer games or going on a field trip—as a reward for good work. 1 0 1. Motivation The Humanistic Perspective 1 1 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.4 Humanistic Perspective Stresses students’ capacity for personal growth. Freedom to choose their destiny and positive qualities (being sensitive). Abraham Maslow (1954-1971): basic needs must be met before higher needs can be satisfied. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. 1 2 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.4 Humanistic Perspective Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs o Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a model of human needs, often represented as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. o Needs at the bottom of the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend. 1 3 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.4 Humanistic Perspective Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs o Physiological: Hunger, thirst, sleep. o Safety: Ensuring survival, such as protection from war and crime. o Love and belongingness: Security, affection, and attention from others. o Esteem: Feeling Good about oneself. o Self-actualization: Realization of one’s potential. 1 0 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.4 Humanistic Perspective Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs o Self-actualization ▪ It is the highest and most elusive of Maslow’s needs, Maslow defines it as the motivation to develop one’s full potential as a human being. ▪ According to Maslow, self-actualization is possible only after the lower needs have been met. Maslow cautions that most people stop maturing after they have developed a high level of esteem and therefore never become self-actualized. ▪ Some characteristics of self-actualized individuals include being spontaneous, problem-centered rather than self-centered, and creative. 9 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.4 Humanistic Perspective DISCREPANCIES WITH MASLOW’S THEORY: For example, for some students cognitive motivation to acquire and understand information and knowledge, might have a stronger value than esteem needs. Other students might meet their esteem needs even though they have not experienced love and belongingness. 9 1. Motivation The Cognitive Perspective 1 7 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.5 Cognitive Perspective According to the cognitive perspective on motivation, students’ mind guide their motivation. THIS PERSPECTIVE FOCUSES ON…. The students’ intrinsic motivation, their attributions, their expectations for success, and their beliefs that they can effectively control their environment and the outcomes of their efforts. 18 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.5 Cognitive Perspective Behavioral perspective student’s motivation is a consequence of external incentives. Cognitive perspective external influences should be de-emphasized. 19 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.5 Cognitive Perspective Belonging mindset Belonging mindset: it describes the belief that people like you belong for example in your university (Rattan & others, 2015). o Many students aren’t sure whether they belong or are well-connected to their school/university…, creating a sense of anxiety that is especially likely to occur for students from negatively stereotyped groups. Negative sense of belonging Lower academic achievement. Positive sense of belonging academic performance Better physical and mental health 20 1. Motivation The Social Perspective 2 1 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.6 Social Perspective Are you the kind of person who is motivated to be around people a lot? Or would you rather stay home and read a book? Shy: you are afraid to meet someone new because of your thoughts, feeling, emotions… Introverted: you enjoy being with people but you need to spend time alone to recharge your social batteries. 22 2. Perpectives of Motivation 2.6 Social Perspective The need for affiliation The need for affiliation or relatedness is the motive to securely connect with other people. This involves establishing, maintaining, and restoring warm, close personal relationships. Students’ need for affiliation or relatedness is reflected in their motivation to spend time with peers, their close friendships, their attachment to their parents, and their desire to have a positive relationship with their teachers. Until we are good about ourselves, we will not be good with others. Because our relationship with others will start from a NEED, so it will be emotional avoidance. 23 Let’s reflect! Recall a situation in which you were highly motivated to achieve something. How would you describe your motivation in terms of each of the four perspectives? 24 3. Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Doing something to obtain something Doing something for its own sake. else. Governed by reinforcement Personal enjoyment, interest, or contingencies. pleasure. «A MEANS TO AN END» “AN END IN ITSELF” It is influenced by external incentives: We must establish a classroom climate in REWARDS/ PUNISHMENTS. which students are intrinsically motivated to learn. E.g. Studying for an exam to get the E.g. Studying for an exam because reward of passing. you really enjoy the subject. 25 3. Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation It has been proved that… When goals are framed only extrinsically, students show a level of independent motivation and persistence on achievement tasks. Students are more highly motivated to learn when they are given choices and become absorbed in challenges that match their skills and receive rewards that have informational value but are not used for control. 26 3. Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation 3.1 Intrinsic motivation Self-determination and personal choice. Optimal experiences and Flow. Interest. Cognitive engagement and self- responsibility. 27 3. Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation 3.1 Intrinsic motivation Self-Determination and personal choice In this view, students believe that they are doing something because of their own will, not because of external success or rewards. Researchers have found that students’ internal motivation and intrinsic interest in school tasks increase when students have some choice and some opportunities to take personal responsibility for their learning (Grolnick, Friendly, & Bellas, 2009). 28 3. Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation 3.1 Intrinsic motivation Optimal Experiences and flow People report that OPTIMAL EXPERIENCES involve feelings of deep ENJOYMENT and HAPPINESS (1990, 1993; Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006). The term flow is used to describe optimal experiences in life: o They feel a sense of mastery and are absorbed in a state of concentration while they engage in an activity. o Flow occurs when individuals are engaged in challenges they find neither too difficult (not beyond the tudent’s ability (learned helplessness) nor too easy (boring). 29 3. Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation 3.1 Intrinsic motivation Optimal Experiences and flow People report that OPTIMAL EXPERIENCES involve feelings of deep ENJOYMENT and HAPPINESS (1990, 1993; Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006). The term flow is used to describe optimal experiences in life: o They feel a sense of mastery and are absorbed in a state of concentration while they engage in an activity. o Flow occurs when individuals are engaged in challenges they find neither too difficult (not beyond the student’s ability (learned helplessness) nor too easy (boring). 30 3. Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation 3.1 Intrinsic motivation APATHY BOREDOM ANXIETY FLOW 3. Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation 3.1 Intrinsic motivation Interest Individual interest: it is thought to be relatively stable. o E.g. someone who has always had a passion for art and has enjoyed drawing and painting since childhood. As they grow older, this individual continues to pursue their interest in art, taking art classes, attending art exhibitions, and spending their free time creating art… Situational interest is believed to be generated by specific aspects of a task activity. o E.g. students’ math ability: how interesting a particular teacher makes a math class. 32 3. Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation 3.1 Intrinsic motivation Cognitive Engagement and Self- Responsibility Creating learning environments that encourage students to become cognitively engaged. Get students to master ideas rather than simply doing enough work to just pass grades. Connect subject matter content and skills: learning within meaningful contexts (real-world situations). 33  3. Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation The overwhelming conclusion of motivation research: Teachers should encourage children to become intrinsically motivated. They should be environments that promote students’ cognitive engagement and self- responsibility for learning. The real world includes both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can operate simultaneously. Thus, a kid may work hard in a course because she enjoys the content and likes learning about it (intrinsic) and to earn a good grade (extrinsic) (Schunk, 2016). Many educational psychologists recommend that extrinsic motivation by itself is not a Good strategy. 34 4. Attribution Theory 4.1 Weiner (1986-1992). “Did I get a good grade Attribution theory states that because I studied hard or the teacher made up an individuals are motivated to easy test or both?”. discover the underlying causes of “Why am I not their own performance and doing well in this class?” behaviour. In a way, attribution theorists say, students are like intuitive scientists, seeking to explain the cause behind what happens. 35 4. Attribution Theory 4.1 Weiner (1986-1992). The search for a cause or explanation is most likely to be started when unpredicted and significant events end in failure, such as when a good student gets a low grade. 36 4. Attribution Theory 4.2 Three Dimensions of Causal Attributions 1. Locus: whether the cause is internal or external to the actor. Internal: «I failed the exam» External: «The teacher gave me a low grade». 2. Stability: the extent to which the cause remains the same or changes. Stable: Ability. Unstable: Effort. 3. Controllability: the extent to which the individual can control the cause. Controllable: Effort, amount of hours studied. Uncontrollable: Luck, the exam. 37 4. Attribution Theory 4.3 Most frequently inferred causes of success & failure Ability Mood Help from others Effort Task difficulty Luck 38 4. Attribution Theory Weiner listed eight possible combinations of locus, stability, and controllability and how they match up with various common explanations of failure. 39 4. Attribution Theory Weiner listed eight possible combinations of locus, stability, and controllability and how they match up with various common explanations of failure. The exam is difficult Hangover on exam day 40 4. Attribution Theory Weiner listed eight possible combinations of locus, stability, and controllability and how they match up with various common explanations of failure. The exam is difficult Hangover on exam day 41 4. Attribution Theory Weiner listed eight possible combinations of locus, stability, and controllability and how they match up with various common explanations of failure. The exam is difficult Hangover on exam day 42 4. Attribution Theory Weiner listed eight possible combinations of locus, stability, and controllability and how they match up with various common explanations of failure. The exam is difficult Hangover on exam day 43 4. Attribution Theory Weiner listed eight possible combinations of locus, stability, and controllability and how they match up with various common explanations of failure. The exam is difficult Hangover on exam day 44 4. Attribution Theory Weiner listed eight possible combinations of locus, stability, and controllability and how they match up with various common explanations of failure. The exam is difficult Hangover on exam day 45 4. Attribution Theory Weiner listed eight possible combinations of locus, stability, and controllability and how they match up with various common explanations of failure. The exam is difficult Hangover on exam day 46 4. Attribution Theory 1. Carlos studied hard for his biology exam but didn’t pass. He feels that no matter how much effort he puts in, he’s never good at science. 2. Ana auditioned for the lead role in a play but wasn’t selected. She believes it’s because the director doesn’t favor her. 3. Juan is part of the basketball team, and they lost the decisive game. He thinks it was his teammates' fault because they didn’t play well. 4. Laura applied for a job opening but wasn’t hired. She feels it was because she doesn’t have enough experience in the field, and she can’t change that. 5. Martín and his partner are going through problems and finally broke up. Martín believes it was because he has a complicated personality and can’t help it. 6. Sofía presented her project in class and received a low grade. She thinks it was because she was very nervous and didn’t sleep well the night before. 7. Daniel has been trying to learn to play the guitar but feels frustrated because he hasn’t improved much. He believes he doesn’t have a natural talent for music. 47 4. Attribution Theory 1. Internal, stable, and uncontrollable 2. External, unstable, and uncontrollable 3. External, unstable, and uncontrollable 4. Internal, stable, and uncontrollable 5. Internal, stable, and uncontrollable 6. Internal, unstable, and uncontrollable 7. Internal, stable, and uncontrollable 48 5. How can we help students change their attributions? 5.6 Strategies Educational psychologists often recommend: 1. Providing students with a planned schedule of goals. 2. Modelling, giving information about learning strategies. 3. Increasing practice and providing feedback. These strategies help them: 1. Concentrate on the task rather than worrying about failing. 2. Cope with failures by retracing their steps to discover their mistake or by analyzing the problem to discover another approach. 3. Attribute their failures to a lack of effort rather than a lack of ability. 49 6. Mastery Orientation and Mindset 6.1 Mastery orientation. Mastery orientation: focus on developing one's skills, improving competence, and mastering new knowledge or abilities, rather than solely seeking external rewards or comparing oneself to others. They concentrate on learning strategies and the process of achievement rather than the outcome. Process of Challenge achievement Mastery Orientation 50  6. Mastery Orientation and Mindset 6.1 Mastery orientation. Are you focused on comprehending and applying relevant psychological concepts rather than merely seeking superficial answers? Do you ask questions to clarify concepts or seek additional resources to deepen your understanding? Do you demonstrate a genuine interest in improving your competence and knowledge in psychology? Do you prioritize the process of analysis and learning over solely aiming for the correct answer or outperforming your peers? 51 6. Mastery Orientation and Mindset 6.2 Mindset (Carol Dweck). An individual's beliefs and attitudes about their abilities, intelligence, and the nature of learning and achievement. 52 6. Mastery Motivation and Mindset 6.1 Mindset (Carol Dweck). Individuals have one of two mindsets: Fixed Growth The belief is that abilities and They believe that their qualities mindset are fixed and cannot change mindset intelligence can be developed through effort, learning, and (similar to helplessness persistence. orientation). They see challenges as They tend to avoid challenges, opportunities to learn and are give up easily when faced with more resilient. difficulties, and are more focused on looking smart or avoiding Love for learning, and taking new failure than on learning and challenges, which can lead to growth. This mindset can limit higher academic achievement academic achievement and and personal development personal development. (similar to having mastery motivation). 53 6. Mastery Motivation and Mindset 6.1 Mindset (Carol Dweck). Group activities: 1. Famous Figures' Stories - Exploring Growth Mindset: we will explore the concept of a growth mindset by examining the life stories of famous individuals who have faced significant challenges. We will discuss whether these individuals exhibited a growth mindset or a fixed mindset and share our findings with the class. This person can be from history, a scientist, an artist, or an athlete. Please choose someone who intrigues you and whose life story you find interesting. Explore their background, the challenges they faced, and the way they approached these challenges. Pay close attention to their attitudes, beliefs, and actions regarding personal growth and learning. Do you think the individual exhibited a growth mindset or a fixed mindset? 2. Appreciation Letter: you must write an appreciation letter to a classmate, acknowledging their efforts, achievements, or positive attitudes towards learning. It is important to value effort and improvement rather than just final outcomes. Afterward, you can share your letters with the classroom. 54 6. Mastery Motivation and Mindset 6.1 Mindset (Carol Dweck). Specific strategies to shift from a fixed mindset to a growth mindset: 1. Education on Growth Mindset: Understanding the difference between a fixed mindset and a growth mindset is fundamental. 2. Reframing Failure: Changing the perception of failure from something negative to viewing it as an opportunity for learning is essential for developing a growth mindset. 3. Setting Learning Goals: Instead of focusing on performance goals, such as achieving a perfect grade, encourage the setting of learning goals. This helps individuals focus on the process of continuous improvement rather than final outcomes. 4. Promoting Effort and Persistence: Encourage the idea that effort is an essential part of learning and that persistence in the face of challenges is valuable. 55 6. Mastery Motivation and Mindset 6.1 Mindset (Carol Dweck). Let’s reflect and share ideas on how we could make educational psychology classes more interesting and motivating from now on. 56 7. Teacher’s Expectations 7. Pygmalion Effect Teachers’ expectations influence students’ motivation and performance. “When teachers hold high generalized expectations for student achievement and students perceive these expectations, students achieve more, experience a greater sense of self-esteem and competence as learners, and resist involvement in problem behaviors both during childhood and adolescence” (Wigfield & others, 2006). 57 7. Teacher’s Expectations 7. Pygmalion Effect Teachers often have more positive expectations for high-ability than for low-ability students, and these expectations are likely to influence their behavior toward them. Teachers want high-ability students to work harder, they wait longer for them to respond to questions, respond to them with more information and in a more elaborate way, criticize them less often, praise them more often, are more friendly to them, call on them more often, they seat them closer to their desks, and are more likely to give them the benefit of the doubt than they are for students with a low ability (Brophy, 2004). 58 7. Teacher’s Expectations 7. Pygmalion Effect 59  8. Learning Disabilities Dyscalculia Pedro sometimes struggles to form letters and words neatly on paper. His handwriting can be Dyslexia hard to read, and he often takes more time than Dysgraphia his classmates to complete writing assignments. Cristina has good oral language skills but has considerable difficulty in computing correct answers to arithmetic problems. Has each of these students a learning Rami’s second-grade teacher disability? complains that his spelling is awful. 60 8. Learning Disabilities A child with a learning disability has difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, and spelling. A learning disability also may involve difficulty in doing mathematics. To be classified as a learning disability, the learning problem is not primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; intellectual disability; emotional disorders; or due to environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. 61 8. Learning Disabilities About three times as many boys as girls are classified as having a learning disability. The explanations are a greater biological vulnerability among boys and referral bias (that is, boys are more likely to be referred by teachers for treatment because of their behaviour). Children with a learning disability are more likely to show poor academic performance, high dropout rates, and poor employment and postsecondary education records. Children with a learning disability who are taught in a regular classroom without extensive support rarely achieve the level of competence of children without a disability, even those who are low achieving (Hocutt, 1996). 62 8. Learning Disabilities About three times as many boys as girls are classified as having a learning disability. The explanations are a greater biological vulnerability among boys and referral bias (that is, boys are more likely to be referred by teachers for treatment because of their behaviour). Children with a learning disability are more likely to show poor academic performance, high dropout rates, and poor employment and postsecondary education records. Children with a learning disability who are taught in a regular classroom without extensive support rarely achieve the level of competence of children without a disability, even those who are low achieving (Hocutt, 1996). 63 8. Learning Disabilities 8.1 Most common learning difficulties Reading Writing Maths 64 8. Learning Disabilities 8.1 Reading, Writing, and Math Difficulties 80% of children with learning difficulties suffer from dyslexia. Difficulty with phonological skills: they are not able to understand how sounds and letters match up to make words and also can have problems in comprehension. Dyslexia Severe impairment in their ability to read and spell. A learning disability that involves difficulty in handwriting Children with dysgraphia may write very slowly, their writing products may be illegible, and they may make numerous spelling errors because of their inability to match up sounds and Dysgraphia letters. Developmental arithmetic disorder, is a learning disability that involves difficulty in math computation. Children with difficulties in math computation often have cognitive and neuropsychological deficits, Dyscalculia including poor performance in working memory, visual perception, and visuospatial abilities. 65 8. Learning Disabilities 8. Causes & Intervention Strategies The precise causes of learning disabilities have not yet been determined. Some possible causes are: One parent has a disability Learning disabilities are not Problems during prenatal such as dyslexia or typically linked to a single, development or delivery. dyscalculia, although the specific brain location. Instead, specific genetic transmission they often result from issues in E.g. learning disabilities are of learning disabilities is not how different brain regions more prevalent in children known. collaborate in brain structures who were low birth weight and functions, as revealed by and preterm infants. MRI findings. 66 8. Learning Disabilities 8. Causes & Intervention Strategies INTERVENTIONS: Improving Intensive Early reading instructional intervention ability methods (by a competent teacher) 67 8. Learning Disabilities 8.1 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disability in which children consistently show one or more of these characteristics over a period of time: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Girls with ADHD present more. For an ADHD diagnosis, the onset of these characteristics early in childhood is required, and the characteristics must be debilitating for the child. The disorder occurs four to nine times more in boys than in girls. 40 8. Learning Disabilities 8.1 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disability in which children consistently show one or more of these characteristics over a period of time: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Girls with ADHD present more inattention. For an ADHD diagnosis, the onset of these characteristics early in childhood is required, and the characteristics must be debilitating for the child. The disorder occurs four to nine times more in boys than in girls. 40 8. Learning Disabilities 8.1 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Depending on the characteristics that children with ADHD display… o ADHD with predominantly inattention. o ADHD with predominantly hyperactivity/impulsivity. o ADHD with both inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. INATTENTIVE CHILDREN HYPERACTIVE IMPULSIVE CHILDREN Difficulty sustaining CHILDREN Difficulty curbing their attention. Always «in motion». actions. Boredom after a few minutes while performing a High levels of physical They have difficulties in task. activity thinking before acting. 40  8. Learning Disabilities 8.1 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder TREATMENT Ritalin or Adderal: is effective in improving the attention of many children with ADHD, but it usually does not improve their attention to the same level as children who do not have ADHD. Medication Medication + Behaviour management = BETTER IMPROVEMENT. Combining Treatment Become more aware of their physiological responses so they can attain better control over their brain’s prefrontal cortex, where executive control primarily occurs. Cognitive & Physical Mindfulness, tai chi, yoga & physical exercise. training 71  8. Learning Disabilities 8.1 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder MYTHS AND TRUTHS ADHD does not exist: the concept of ADHD is indeed new (Lange et al., 2010), but the existence of hyperactive, impulsive children with attention problems is a reality that can be seen in the scientific Medication literature since the nineteenth century. ADHD is a problem of education: minors with ADHD are not made, they are born. ADHD is inherited. Parents report that their children with ADHD were always “different”: they slept worse, were more irritable, seemed clueless, or had more tantrums. They had a low frustration tolerance and used aggressiveness more than their peers. They had a harder time holding the pee, they had difficulty reading and writing. Others had tics. Children with ADHD are lazy: the vast majority of children with ADHD are not lazy, they find it harder Cognitive & than most to study. Children with ADHD, when appropriate treatment is started (pharmacological, Psysical training psychoeducation, psychotherapy, and generation of study habits) begin to get academic grades according to their potential. Where there was a "lazy" child, then, we find an outstanding child. 72  8. Learning Disabilities 8.1 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder MYTHS AND TRUTHS ADHD does not exist: the concept of ADHD is indeed new (Lange et al., 2010), but the existence of hyperactive, impulsive children with attention problems is a reality that can be seen in the scientific Medication literature since the nineteenth century. ADHD is a problem of education: minors with ADHD are not made, they are born. ADHD is inherited. Parents report that their children with ADHD were always “different”: they slept worse, were more irritable, seemed clueless, or had more tantrums. They had a low frustration tolerance and used aggressiveness more than their peers. They had a harder time holding the pee, they had difficulty reading and writing. Others had tics. Children with ADHD are lazy: the vast majority of children with ADHD are not lazy, they find it harder Cognitive & than most to study. Children with ADHD, when appropriate treatment is started (pharmacological, Psysical training psychoeducation, psychotherapy, and generation of study habits) begin to get academic grades according to their potential. Where there was a "lazy" child, then, we find an outstanding child. 73 8. Learning Disabilities 8.2 Intellectual Disability Gradually, children with intellectual disabilities are being taught in the regular classroom. By definition, intellectual disability is a condition with onset before age 18 that involves low intelligence (usually below 70) and difficulty in adapting to everyday life. Low IQ and low adaptiveness should be evident in childhood, not following a long period of normal functioning that is interrupted by an accident or other type of assault on the brain. 74  8. Learning Disabilities 8.2 Intellectual Disability Before formal tests were developed to assess intelligence, kids with an intellectual disability were identified by a lack of age-appropriate skills in learning and caring for themselves. Types of support 75  8. Learning Disabilities 8.2 Intellectual Disability Genetic Factors The most commonly identified form of intellectual disability is Down syndrome: 47 chromosomes instead of 46 (unknown causes): The health of the male sperm or female ovum might be involved. o They have a round face, a flattened skull, an extra fold of skin over the eyelids, a protruding tongue, short limbs, and motor and mental disabilities. o Women between the ages of 18 and 38 are less likely than younger or older women to give birth to a child with Down syndrome. 1 in every 700 live births. o Early intervention and extensive support are needed for down syndrome children to grow into independent adults 76  8. Learning Disabilities 8.2 Intellectual Disability Genetic Factors The most commonly identified form of intellectual disability is Down syndrome: 47 chromosomes instead of 46 (unknown causes): The health of the male sperm or female ovum might be involved. o They have a round face, a flattened skull, an extra fold of skin over the eyelids, a protruding tongue, short limbs, and motor and mental disabilities. o Women between the ages of 18 and 38 are less likely than younger or older women to give birth to a child with Down syndrome. 1 in every 700 live births. o Early intervention and extensive support are needed for down syndrome children to grow into independent adults 77 8. Learning Disabilities 8.2 Intellectual Disability BRAIN DAMAGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Infections in the pregnant mother such as rubella, syphilis, herpes, and AIDS, can cause intellectual disability in children. Meningitis and encephalitis cause inflammation in the brain and can produce intellectual disability. Environmental hazards: malnutrition, poisoning, birth injury, and alcoholism or heavy drinking on the part of the pregnant woman. 78 8. Learning Disabilities 8.3 Physical Disorders Physical disorders in children include orthopedic impairments, such as cerebral palsy, and seizure disorders (epilepsy). Many children with physical disorders require special education and related services, such as transportation, physical therapy, school health services, and psychological services. ORTHOPEDIC IMPAIRMENTS SEIZURE DISORDERS - Restricted movements or lack of control of - The most common seizure disorder is movements, due to muscle, bone, or joint epilepsy, a neurological disorder problems. characterized by recurring sensorimotor - Cerebral Palsy: Involves a lack of muscular attacks or movement convulsions. coordination, shaking, or unclear speech. - Children who experience seizures are The most common cause of cerebral palsy is usually treated with one or more a lack of oxygen at birth. anticonvulsant medications, which often are effective in reducing the seizures but Special computers especially can help children do not always eliminate them. with cerebral palsy to learn. 79 8. Learning Disabilities 8.3 Physical Disorders Physical disorders in children include orthopedic impairments, such as cerebral palsy, and seizure disorders (epilepsy). Many children with physical disorders require special education and related services, such as transportation, physical therapy, school health services, and psychological services. ORTHOPEDIC IMPAIRMENTS SEIZURE DISORDERS - Restricted movements or lack of control of - The most common seizure disorder is movements, due to muscle, bone, or joint epilepsy, a neurological disorder problems. characterized by recurring sensorimotor - Cerebral Palsy: Involves a lack of muscular attacks or movement convulsions. coordination, shaking, or unclear speech. - Children who experience seizures are The most common cause of cerebral palsy is usually treated with one or more a lack of oxygen at birth. anticonvulsant medications, which often are effective in reducing the seizures but Special computers especially can help children do not always eliminate them. with cerebral palsy to learn. 80  8. Learning Disabilities 8.4 Sensory Impairments Sensory disorders include visual and hearing impairments: o Visual impairments include the need for corrective lenses, low vision, and being educationally blind. o Children who are hearing impaired can be born deaf or experience a loss of hearing as they develop. VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS HEARING IMPAIRMENTS Low vision: these children can read large-print books Children who are born deaf or experience significant or regular books with the aid of a magnifying glass. hearing loss in the first several years of life usually do not develop normal speech and language. Children who are educationally blind: cannot use their vision in learning and must rely on their hearing and touch Oral approaches include using lip reading, and speech reading. to learn. Manual approaches involve sign language and finger spelling. Determine the modality (such as touch or hearing) o Sign language is a system of hand movements that through which the child learns best. Seating in the symbolize words. front of the class often benefits the child with a visual o Fingerspelling consists of “spelling out” each Word by impairment/3D printing/haptic devices signing. (TECHNOLOGIES). 81  8. Learning Disabilities 8.5 Speech & Language Disorders Speech and language disorders include several speech problems (such as articulation disorders, voice disorders, and fluency disorders) and language problems (difficulties in receiving information and expressing thoughts) (Owens, Farinella, & Metz, 2015). Approximately 21% of all children who receive special education services have a speech or language impairment. Articulation disorders: Problems in pronouncing sounds correctly. Voice disorders: Disorders producing speech that is hoarse, harsh, too loud, too high-pitched, or too low-pitched. Fluency disorders: Disorders that often involve “stuttering”= when a child’s speech has a spasmodic hesitation, prolongation, or repetition. Language disorders: Significant impairments in a child’s receptive or expressive language. o Receptive language: The reception and understanding of language. o Expressive language: The ability to use language to express one’s thoughts and communicate with others. 46 TREATMENT: SPEECH THERAPY  8. Learning Disabilities 8.5 Speech & Language Disorders Speech and language disorders include several speech problems (such as articulation disorders, voice disorders, and fluency disorders) and language problems (difficulties in receiving information and expressing thoughts) (Owens, Farinella, & Metz, 2015). Approximately 21% of all children who receive special education services have a speech or language impairment. Articulation disorders: Problems in pronouncing sounds correctly. Voice disorders: Disorders producing speech that is hoarse, harsh, too loud, too high-pitched, or too low-pitched. Fluency disorders: Disorders that often involve “stuttering”= when a child’s speech has a spasmodic hesitation, prolongation, or repetition. Language disorders: Significant impairments in a child’s receptive or expressive language. o Receptive language: The reception and understanding of language. o Expressive language: The ability to use language to express one’s thoughts and communicate with others. 46 TREATMENT: SPEECH THERAPY 8. Learning Disabilities 8.5 Speech & Language Disorders SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT (SLI) (DEVELOPMENTAL LANGUAGE DISORDER) This disorder involves language development problems with no other obvious physical, sensory, or emotional difficulties. Children with SLI have problems in understanding and using words in sentences. Indicator of SLI (5-year-old children): incomplete understanding of verbs. They typically drop the –s from verb tenses (such as “She walk to the store”) and ask questions without “be” or “do” verbs (rather than saying “Does he live there?” the child will say “He lives there?”). They sound like two years younger than they are. 84 8. Learning Disabilities 8.5 Speech & Language Disorders SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT (SLI) (DEVELOPMENTAL LANGUAGE DISORDER) Treatment o Early identification of SLI is important and can usually be accurately accomplished by 5 years of age and in some cases earlier. Intervention: o Modeling correct utterances, rephrasing the child’s incorrect utterances during a conversation. o Reading instruction. o Parents may also wish to send a child with SRI to a speech or language pathologist. 85  8. Learning Disabilities 8.5 Autism Spectrum Disorders Autistic disorder is a severe developmental autism spectrum disorder that has its onset during the first three years of life and includes deficiencies in social relationships; abnormalities in communication; and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior. Asperger's High-Functioning syndrome Autism Childhood Autistic disintegrative disorder disorder. (Kanner). 86 8. Learning Disabilities 8.5 Autism Spectrum Disorders Asperger syndrome is a relatively mild autism spectrum disorder in which the child has relatively good verbal language skills, milder nonverbal language problems, and a restricted range of interests and relationships. Children with Asperger syndrome often… o Engage in obsessive, repetitive routines and preoccupations with a particular subject. For example, a child may be obsessed with baseball scores or YouTube videos. 87  8. Learning Disabilities 8.5 Autism Spectrum Disorders Preoccupation with Obsessive Interests: Repetitive Routines: Social Impact: Emotional Response: Details: ❖Specific Subjects: ❖Daily Rituals: These ❖In-depth Knowledge: ❖Conversational Style: ❖Attachment to Interests: Children with Asperger children may follow strict Children may be able to Their conversations might These children might syndrome might develop routines and can become recall detailed information be one-sided, focusing become emotionally deep, specialized distressed if these routines about their interests, such extensively on their attached to their interests, knowledge about their are disrupted. For as remembering dates, interests without finding comfort and joy in favorite topics, such as example, they might insist facts, and figures. recognizing if others are their routines and dinosaurs, trains, or on eating the same foods interested or willing to preoccupations. astronomy. This interest in a specific order or ❖Focus on Parts: They listen. can lead to extensive following the same route might be more interested ❖Anxiety and Distress: collections, detailed to school. in parts of objects rather ❖Peer Relationships: This Changes in routine or drawings, or in-depth than the whole, such as intense focus can limitations on their discussions. ❖Repetitive Play: Playtime spinning the wheels of a sometimes make it interests can cause might involve repeating toy car instead of playing challenging to connect significant anxiety or ❖Unusual Focus: the same action or game with the car as a vehicle. with peers who do not distress. Sometimes, the subjects of over and over again, such share the same interests. interest might be unusual as building the same Lego or specific, such as a structure repeatedly or fascination with vacuum reenacting the same scene cleaners, numbers, or from a movie. specific video games. 88  8. Learning Disabilities 8.5 Autism Spectrum Disorders CAUSES AND INTERVENTION CAUSES: The current consensus is that autism is a brain dysfunction characterized by abnormalities in brain structure and neurotransmitters. o Lack of connectivity between brain regions. o Genetic factors also likely play a role in the development of autism spectrum disorders but there is no evidence that family socialization causes autism. o Intellectual disability is present in some children with autism, while others show average or above-average intelligence. INTERVENTIONS: o Well-structured classroom. o Individualized instruction and small-group instruction. o Behavior modification techniques. 89 9. Emotional & Behavioral Disorders Serious and persistent problems that involve relationships, aggression, depression, fears associated with personal or school matters, and other inappropriate socioemotional characteristics. Involves a highly unpleasant feeling of fear, Anxiety Depression The kid feels worthless and useless, believes that things are unlikely to get better, and behaves and worry. As well as associated behavioral lethargically for a long time. When children show disorders that maintain anxiety. It is normal these signs for two weeks or longer, they likely are for children to be concerned or worried when experiencing depression. Having a poor appetite and they face life challenges, but some children not being able to sleep well also can be associated with depression. have such intense and prolonged anxiety that it Depression is much more likely to appear in substantially impairs their school performance adolescence than in childhood and has a much (Griffiths & Fazel, 2016). higher incidence in girls than in boys. Females tend to ruminate on their depressed mood STAIC (The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) and amplify it, whereas males tend to distract Spielberg, 1983: State anxiety: specific themselves from the unpleasant mood (Schwartz- situation & Trait Anxiety: generalized anxiety. Mette & Rose, 2016). 90 9. Emotional & Behavioral Disorders 91 10. Self-concept Definition Self-concept generally refers to our perceptions of ourselves, it is how we see our abilities, attitudes, attributes, beliefs, and expectations (Harter, 2006; Pajares & Schunk, 2001). It is a mental picture of who we are. We attempt to explain ourselves to ourselves, to build a scheme (in Piaget’s terms) that organizes our impressions, attitudes, and beliefs about ourselves. Our self-perceptions can vary from situation to situation and from one phase of our lives to another. 52 11. Self-esteem Definition Self-esteem is an overall and subjective judgment of self-worth. It consists of feeling proud or ashamed of yourself as a person. If people judge themselves positively (if they “like what they see" we say that they have high self-esteem). 93 12. Self-acceptance Definition The state of complete acceptance of oneself, with your positives and negatives attributes. True self-acceptance is embracing who you are, without any qualifications, conditions, or exceptions (Seltzer, 2008). We must first recognize that we have undesirable features and habits/behaviours before we start on our journey to improvement. What can we change, and what must accept? 94 12. Self-acceptance Imagine a chessboard, it has black and white pieces on each side of the board. On one side, we can imagine that the black chess pieces are all of our pleasant thoughts and feelings. On the other side are all of our unpleasant and distressing feelings and thoughts. We actively try to move the white pieces more than the black ones but we do not realize that white pieces attract black movement (relational frames theory). When we spend our time caught up in internal fights, we are not putting our energy into the things that matter or are meaningful to us. “You are not the pieces, you are not the chessboard, you are the person who is looking for the match”. 95 13. Difference between self-concept & self-esteem Self-concept is a perception of who you are. o For example, the belief that you are a good student. Self-esteem is an overall, general sense of value or self-worth. Self-concept Self- esteem «Who I am» «How I feel about myself» 96 How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statements? 1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 2. At times I think I am no good at all. 1. Strongly Agree 3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 2. Agree 4. I am able to do things as well as most other people. 3. Disagree 5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 4. Strongly Disagree 6. I certainly feel useless at times. 7. I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. 8. I wish I could have more respect for myself. 9. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. 10. I take a positive attitude toward myself Measure of self-esteem (Hagborg,1993; Rosenberg, 1979). 97 How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statements? Items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9 are reverse scored. Give “Strongly Disagree” 1 point, “Disagree” 2 points, “Agree” 3 points, and “Strongly Agree” 4 points. Sum scores for all ten items. Keep scores on a continuous scale. Higher scores indicate higher self-esteem. Measure of self-esteem (Hagborg,1993; Rosenberg, 1979). 98 14. How does self-concept develop? The self-concept evolves through constant self-evaluation in different situations. Children and adolescents are continually asking themselves, in effect, “How am I doing?” Significant people in the child’s life, and their verbal and nonverbal reactions will also construct their self-concept-family members in the early years, friends, schoolmates, and teachers. Younger children tend to have positive and optimistic self-concepts. They don’t compare themselves to peers; older students are less optimistic and more realistic. “Illusions of incompetence”: they seriously underestimate their competence (Phillips & Zimmerman, 1990). They are not accurate in judging their own abilities. Their self- concepts are tied to physical appearance and social acceptance as well as school achievement. 99  14. How does self-concept develop? How quickly they Overall learn or how well they do in school self- in general concept Your educational Influence on aspirations and goals Motivation, (e.g., deciding to and decision attend college) are driven by your making general academic self-concept. How good they think they are in Subject- math, their specific attitudes toward math. self-concept 10 0 14. How does self-concept develop? How can we help develop a positive self-concept and self-esteem in the classroom? Teachers’ positive feedback. Grading practices with justice. Being aware of our communication styles: caring for students can make a difference in how students feel about their abilities in particular subjects. Practices that allow authentic participation, cooperation, problem-solving, and accomplishment. Letting students grow more competent in areas they value—including the social areas that become so important in adolescence. 10 1 Video Motivation 10 2 BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES Santrock, J. W. (2017). Educational Psychology. Madrid: McGraw Hill. Slavin, R. A. (2018). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. New York: Pearson. Woolfolk, A. (2016). Educational Psychology. The Ohio State University: Pearson. Paunesku, D., Walton, G. M., Romero, C., Smith, E. N., Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2015). "Mind-set interventions are a scalable treatment for academic underachievement." Psychological Science, 26(6), 784-793. Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). "Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention." Child Development, 78(1), 246-263. 10 3 BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Random House. Dweck, C. S. (2012). "Mindsets and human nature: Promoting change in the Middle East, the schoolyard, the racial divide, and willpower." American Psychologist, 67(8), 614-622. Haimovitz, K., & Dweck, C. S. (2016). "What predicts children’s fixed and growth intelligence mindsets? Not their parents’ views of intelligence but their parents’ views of failure." Psychological Science, 27(6), 859- 869. Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). "Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed." Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302-314. Herrera Soria, J., & Zamora Guevara, N. (2014). ¿Sabemos realmente qué es la motivación? Correo Científico Médico, 18(1), 126-128. 10 4 Professor Lorena Combadiera [email protected] UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia © UCAM © UCAM