Psychology of Learning: Theories, Concepts & Processes PDF

INTRODUCTION THE EARLIEST THEORY OF LEARNING Plato and Aristotle were called rationalists because they emphasized the role of the mind in acquiring knowledge. Plato (417-327 BC) believed in nativism, which says that knowledge is inherited and is therefore a natural or innate component of the human...

INTRODUCTION THE EARLIEST THEORY OF LEARNING Plato and Aristotle were called rationalists because they emphasized the role of the mind in acquiring knowledge. Plato (417-327 BC) believed in nativism, which says that knowledge is inherited and is therefore a natural or innate component of the human mind. Aristotle (384-322 BC) was called an empiricist, because he focused on sensory information as the basis of knowledge. He formulated the following laws of association: 1.​ Law of Similarity – recall of similar objects. 2.​ Law of Contrast – recall of things that are opposite. 3.​ Law of Contiguity – recall of an activity related to a previous one. Later Notions on Learning: ​ Rene Descartes (1596-1650) studied the relationship between mind and body. He believed the mind could initiate behavior. ​ John Locke (1632-1704) believed the infant's mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate). "There is nothing in the mind that is not first in the senses, except the mind itself." ​ Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) examined the shape of the skull and concluded that its faculties are located in specific parts of the brain. His study is called phrenology. ​ Charles Darwin (1809-1882) introduced the theory of evolution. He perceived human beings as a combination of biological heritage and human experience. ​ Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) stated that learning and memory can be studied experimentally. He introduced nonsense material for research. NATURE OF LEARNING When parents ask their children, "What did you learn in school today?" the most common replies are "I don’t know" and "Nothing." Does this indicate a general weakness of the educational system? No. It simply indicates that learning often takes place without our realizing it. Life consists of continuous experiences. Some skills are learned, like throwing a ball, playing the piano, and computer programming. Other skills are not considered as learned, like discriminating pizza from hamburgers or Jollibee from McDonald's. However, these tastes are actually also learned. WHAT IS LEARNING? Learning means gaining knowledge or skill. It is the process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change of behavior, which helps to attain goals or needs. This definition covers the following essential aspects: ​ The term learning does not apply to temporary change in behavior, such as those resulting from drugs, illness, or fatigue. ​ It does not refer to changes resulting from maturation or biological influences. ​ Learning can result from vicarious as well as direct experiences. One can be affected by observing events and behavior in the environment, as well as by participating in them (Bandura, 1986). ​ Changes produced by learning are not always positive in nature. THEORIES OF LEARNING One source of information about learning is theory. A theory is a set of interrelated constructs, concepts, principles, and hypotheses that attempt to explain, predict, or control a set of phenomena. A theory of learning describes, explains, or predicts conditions under which learning does or does not occur, and the very nature of the learning process. For example, a theory of learning describes, explains, and controls the relationship between teachers' behavior and students' learning process. It explains how teachers' behavior affects learning in students. It considers teachers' behavior as the cause and students' learning as the effect. However, teachers' behavior is only one factor or environmental condition under which learning occurs. Learning can occur even in the absence of a teacher. Learning should be facilitated and accelerated, rather than hindered, by the behavior of teachers. Learning should occur because of rather than in spite of the teacher. ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS (Mowley) 1.​ Motivation – An organism is constantly bombarded with stimuli from the environment. One's response to any stimulus is directly proportional to the strength of one's motive.​ 2.​ Goal – Behavior, being purposive, is oriented towards a goal. The perceived probability of success determines whether or not a person will strive towards a goal. Goal  achievement does not always result from a reduction of tension but from the strengthening of expectancy.​ 3.​ Readiness – Depends on training, experience, and heredity. It is rated according to:​ ○​ Physiological factors – maturation of sense organs. ○​ Psychological factors – motives, emotional factors, and self-concept. ○​ Experiential factors – previously learned skills and concepts. 4.​ Obstacle – The presence of obstacles is an occasion to learn new modes of adjustment; a hindrance or deterrence challenges the learner.​ 5.​ Responses – Actions or behavioral tendencies according to one's interpretation of a situation. It may be in the form of a direct attack or a circumventing manner.​ LEARNING CURVE A learning curve is a graphic device showing the quality of a subject's performance after successive units of practice. In plotting a learning curve: ​ The units of practice are presented as distance along the baseline of the graph. ​ The amount of performance is plotted along the vertical axis. BOX 1: Brief Background on the Study of Learning and Memory ​ Gustav Fechner (1801-1887), a physicist, contributed to psychophysics and formulated Weber-Fechner’s Law, explaining how sensory perceptions relate to stimuli strength. ​ Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian physiologist, won the Nobel Prize for his work on classical conditioning, studying conditioned reflexes. ​ Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) – Developed the Law of Effect, which states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated. ​ B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) – Invented the Skinner Box to study operant conditioning through reinforcement and punishment. What Do We Learn? 1.​ Simple Responses – Basic reflexes, such as an infant startled by a loud noise. 2.​ Muscular Habits – Coordination of muscles over time, such as learning to walk. 3.​ Perceptual Responses – How we interpret sensory information based on past experiences. 4.​ Motives – Some are inherent (e.g., hunger), while others develop through experience. 5.​ Attitudes – Responses we develop toward our environment, including learned 6.​ Emotional responses- Emotionally charged stimulus (e.g., fear of heights). 7.​ Problem-Solving – Using past experiences to navigate new situations. 8.​ Language – Learning symbols, words, and communication methods. 9.​ Personality – Many behavioral traits (e.g., extroversion) are learned rather than solely inherited.