Nature of Learning PDF

EDU - 07: PERSPECTIVES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING UNIT I NATURE OF LEARNING ________________________________________________________________________ Learning Outcome: 1. To understand the concept, nature and factors influencing learning....

EDU - 07: PERSPECTIVES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING UNIT I NATURE OF LEARNING ________________________________________________________________________ Learning Outcome: 1. To understand the concept, nature and factors influencing learning. 2. To develop an understanding of the process of learning 3. To familiarise the concept of memory and forgetting 4. To conceptualise the role of motivation in learning 5. To familiarise the concept of achievement motivation Major concepts  Meaning, Definition & Characteristics of learning,  Factors affecting learning - learner, Method and Task variables,  Learning curve, Plateau in learning,  Study habits- Concept and methods,  Transfer of Learning.  Motivation - Concept, Types, strategies, Theories - Abraham Maslow,  Achievement motivation ______________________________________________________________________________ Meaning of ‘Learning’ Every individual is in active relations with his environment, he not only changes and modifies his environment, but is in turn being changed and modified by it. Learning is the modification of behavior through experience. It is the change of behavior influenced by previous behavior. Learning can be defined as the process of effecting a change in behavior, which produces an improvement in our relations with the environment. Learning is the process by which an individual acquires various habits, knowledge and attitudes that are necessary to meet the demands of life in general. It affects one’s behavior by producing changes that are suited to various situations that may arise. These changes in the behavior may take the form of completely new patterns, or may consist in the improvement of already existing basic responses. When complete learning has taken place, the best way of responding to a situation becomes permanent. Thus, learning may be defined as the process of effecting changes in the individual’s behavior and making such changes permanent. Learning is often defined as a relatively lasting change in behavior that is the result of experience. According to Henry.P.Smith “Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or weakening of old behavior as a result of experience”  2 Crow and Crow defined “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and attitudes; it involves new ways of doing things and it operates in an individuals’ attempt to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It enables him to satisfy interests and to attain goals”. Gates et al defined “Learning is the modification of behavior through experience”. According to Gardner and Murphy “Learning covers every modification in behavior to meet environmental requirements”. Characteristics of Learning “ The meaning of ‘knowing’ has shifted from being able to stock information and repeat it, to being able to critically make use of it” Herbert Simon Learning became a major focus of study in psychology during the early part of the twentieth century as behaviorism rose to become a major school of thought. Today, learning remains an important concept in numerous areas of psychology, including cognitive, educational, social and developmental psychology. Learning should not be aimless and haphazard. Young children learn bad as well as good things. They may acquire vices as well as virtues, and even wrong modes of thought. Therefore it is the responsibility of the educator to give him proper direction, and guidance in their learning process. In all types of learning either the inherited modes of behavior are modified or new forms of behavior are acquired. Most learning in children consists in modifying, adapting and developing the original nature. In later life, the individual acquires new forms of behavior to meet the demands of new situations or to adjust to a changing environment. Thus learning is often described as “adjustments”. An individual starts learning as soon as he is born. He continues learning throughout his life. Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge, attitudes and skills. It involves new ways of doing things and attempts to adjust to new situations. It shows progressive change in behavior as the individual reacts to a situation. It is an effort to adopt his behavior effectively to demands made upon him. It thus enables him to satisfy interests or to attain goals. Learning may be both vertical and horizontal. It is vertical in so far as precision is increased or information is added to that already learned. It is horizontal in so far as what is learned is integrated and organized as a part of a functioning unit of expanding experience. Thus the former means qualitative and the latter is quantitative in nature. Learning is expected to bring about more or less permanent change in the learner's behavior. This change may range from the acquisition of a relatively simple skill, item of information to the mastery of complicated mechanical performance and application of difficult and abstract reading material, change in response or behavior is caused partly or wholly by experience. It includes behavior change in the emotional sphere, refers to the acquisition of symbolic knowledge or motor skills. It however does not include physiological changes like fatigue, temporary sensory resistance and hunger.  3 Learning should enable us to make the least use of the things in the world around us. For example, one has to learn the art of living harmoniously with others by learning how to establish good relations with his fellows. Learning not limited to the school alone. It being earlier and continues even after the school days. Yoakman and Simpson described the following nine important characteristics of learning. 1. Learning is growth: The individual grows as he lives. This growth implies both physical as well as mental development of the learner. The individual gains experiences through various activities. These are all sources of learning. The individual grows through living and learning. Thus growth and learning are inter-related and even synonymous. 2. Learning is adjustment: Learning enables the individual to adjust himself properly, with the new situations. The individual faces new problems and new situations throughout his life and learning helps him to solve the problems encountered by him. That is why many psychologists describe learning as "a process of progressive adjustment to the ever changing conditions which one encounters." The society in which we live is so complex and so dynamic that any one type of adjustment will not be suitable for all or many situations and problems. It is through learning that one could achieve the ability to adjust adequately to all situations of life. 3. Learning is purposeful: All kinds of learning is goal-oriented. The individual acts with some purpose. He learns through activities. He gets himself interested when he is aware of his objectives to be realized through these activities. Therefore all learning is purposive in nature. 4. Learning is experience: The individual learns through experiences. Human life is a fall of experiences. All these experiences provide new knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes. Learning is not mere acquisition of the knowledge, skills and attitudes. It is also the reorganization of experiences or the synthesis of the old experiences with the new. 5. Learning is intelligent: Mere cramming without proper understanding does not make learning. Thus meaningless efforts do not produce permanent results. Any work done mechanically cannot yield satisfactory learning outcomes. Learning therefore must be intelligent. 6. Learning is active: Learning is given more importance than teaching. It implies self-activity of the learner. Without adequate motivation he cannot work whole-heartedly and motivation is therefore at the root of self-activity. Learning by doing is thus an important principle of education, and the basis of all progressive methods of education like the Project, Dalton, Montessori and Basic system. 7. Learning is both individual and social: Although learning is an individual activity, it is social also. Individual mind is consciously or unconsciously affected by the group activities. Individual is influenced by his peers, friends, relatives’ parents and classmates and learns their ideas, feelings and attitudes in some way or others. The social agencies like family, church, markets, and clubs exert immense influence on the individual minds. Thus learning becomes both individual as well as social.  4 8. Learning is the product of the environment: The individual lives in interaction of the society. Particularly, environment plays an important part in the growth and development of the individual. The physical, social, intellectual and emotional development of the child is molded and remolded by the objects and individuals in his environment. Therefore, emphasized that child's environment should be made free from unhealthy and vicious matters to make it more effective for learning. 9. Learning affects the conduct of the learner: Learning is called the modification of behavior. It affects the learner's behavior and conduct. Every learning experience brings about changes in the mental structure of the learner. Therefore attempts are made to provide such learning experiences which can mould the desired conduct and habits in the learners. Principles of Learning Principles of Learning have a significant influence upon knowledge acquisition, skill enhancement and competence development when applied to both classroom settings and communities. They bring insights into how learning occurs and lasts; shares the impact of the use of instructional technology; and suggests ways to change the instructional process with consideration given to the cognitive science and human learning research tradition. Readiness to Learn has an implicit impact upon all the other components of learning and over which all other elements of learning overlaps. The principles of learning are: 1. Active Involvement: Learner should be actively involved and participate in his or her instruction. Information is not to be delivered but rather the learner should create it. 2. Patterns and Connections: Learner should have the opportunity to establish, test, and rework patterns and connections as they "make meaning" out of learning situations. 3. Informal Setting: Learning is informal and it can be acquired anywhere, at any time, it does not occur in classroom settings only, nor is it contained within the time frame of a lesson. 4. Direct Experience: Since learners are actively involved in creating their own patterns and connections in informal settings, it is inevitable that we will have misconceptions. Direct experience in a real context is required to change or alter these preconceived notions. 5. Compelling Situation: A compelling learning situation goes beyond a direct experience and involves real consequences making it more challenging and interesting for the learners. 6. Frequent Feedback: stresses the importance of the incentives and frequent feedback, which the learners should get from instructors and peers throughout the learning process because without feedback and practice even well learned abilities will go away. 7. Enjoyable Setting: feedback will be most effective if it is delivered in an enjoyable setting that involves personal interactions and a considerable level of personal support. 8. Reflection: It is a subcomponent of Compelling Situation. Reflection is necessary to reach the point of deeper learning to use the information in future situations. Reflection is one of the primary elements of learning because through reflection students can take control of their own learning. The practice of reflection enhances self-assessment skills that lead to recognizing what has worked and what needs to be improved. All of this leads to transfer of learning to new settings and for long-term impact.  5 Factors influencing Learning 1. Maturation Maturation is a natural process. It is growth, proceeding regularly in the organism without any environmental stimulation. The maturational changes are the result of unfolding and ripening of inherited traits in the individual. Maturation is relatively independent of activity, practice or experience. Whereas learning involves behavior modification brought about by changes in the living environment and not by genetic inheritance. It is a process, which takes place as a result of external stimuli. The behavior changes in the process of learning are always produced through some activity, training or experience. Learning and maturation are so interrelated and is difficult to say definitely as to which of the behavioral changes are due to learning and which of maturation. Experiment to study the influence of maturation on learning A pair of identical twin girls who were 46 weeks old was examined for stair climbing skill. Twin A received 20 minutes training daily for about 6 weeks. The other Twin B did not receive any training during this period. At the end of 6 weeks, twin A showed superiority in climbing stairs than B. Later twin B was given 3 weeks training in climbing stairs. It was found that twin B who received a lesser duration of training excelled twin A in stair climbing. This is because B was more mature (52 weeks) than A when she began training, so she was able to perform better with much lesser time. This shows that maturation influence the learning process. This implies that teaching after attaining maturation is better than hurrying the child to master skills. 2. Learning Readiness Learning without maturation will be delayed or distorted. The learner’s stage of maturity is important in the learning process. The degree of maturation necessary for a particular learning to be effective is usually called learning readiness. The learning readiness of the child must be ascertained before he is taught skills like reading, writing and arithmetic. A child learns to walk only after he has reached a particular stage in his maturation process; he learns to read more easily only after he has reached his individual state of readiness for reading. Maturation and learning are thus closely related to each other. Although the rate of maturation varies with individuals, maturation helps in learning process. 3. Attention Attention is essential for teachers to teach well and for students to understand and learn well. Attention is responsible for bringing efficiency in learning. It enables the students to learn properly within a short period of time. It also increases their abilities and develops the acquired skills as well as enhances their memory power and understanding. Moreover, sustaining attention creates interest in a particular object or activity, and makes the students goal-directed. Attention can be defined as a process which compels the individual to select some particular stimulus according to his interest and attitude out of the multiplicity of stimuli present in the environment (R.N. Sharma). Attention is the process of getting an object of  6 thought clearly before the mind. In other words, it is the concentration of consciousness upon one object rather than upon another. Characteristics of Attention: Attention is a state of preparedness or alertness. It is the process of focusing of consciousness on a particular object. Attention is highly selective and is constantly shifting. Types of Attention i. Volitional (voluntary) attention demands the exercise of will, and continuous effort on the part of the learner. It is not automatic or spontaneous. Usually, for volitional attention to be effective, the learner should have a clear well-defined goal before him. Volitional attention is of two types: Implicit volitional attention – where a single voluntary act is sufficient to bring about attention; and explicit volitional attention – where a number of repeated voluntary acts are needed to maintain attention. ii. Non-Volitional (involuntary) attention is aroused without the play of will. Here we attend to an object or idea without making any conscious efforts on our past. It can be easily aroused by our instincts and sentiments. Non – volitional attention are of two types: Enforced Non-Volitional attention - aroused by instincts; and spontaneous Non- Volitional attention - aroused by sentiments. 4. Span of Attention According to Drever, “it is the largest number of objects that can be reported after a period of limited display of them”. In span of attention, the number of figures or letters that one can notice in one act of attention is determined. There are individual differences, but usually 4 or 5 numbers or letters can be attended to at a single glance. This is the reason why the registration plate of a motor car contains usually only four figures. It is an interesting capacity of the human mind to organize the perceptual field into different units. Hence, the numbers forming one group containing four units and two or three letters forming a different group containing only two or three units, makes it possible for the traffic constable to take note of the numbers of fast running vehicles. In some cases the letters form a meaningful word; in such cases even if the familiar word contains ten or more letters it may be grasped in one single act of attention. This is because the mind rapidly supplies certain parts, which are not actually noticed. Span of Attention is measured by an apparatus called “Tachistoscope”. 5. Distraction Distraction may be defined as any stimulus whose presence interferes with the process of attention or draws away attention from the object to which he wish to attend. For e.g. Noise, music, improper lighting, uncomfortable seats, unfavorable temperature, inadequate ventilation, defective methods of teaching, improper use of teaching aids, defective voice of teacher and his improper behavior and mannerisms etc. are all elements of distraction.  7 Teacher’s role in removing distraction and sustaining attention: A teacher should try to take care of both the internal and external factors for capturing attention of his students. He should see that his students possess a favorable attitude towards the topic being taught, so that they can have genuine interest in it. He may make use of proper teaching methods, techniques, devices and audiovisual aids that can appeal to the child’s basic needs, drives and interests. He must emphasize the overall importance of the topic and set the clear cut aims and objectives of teaching as well as learning. Personal ambitions and desires may be awakened in the students. Factors of distraction should be reduced to the minimum so that the students do not feel any inconvenience. After capturing attention, essential attempts should be made to hold it for a desirably long time. This is called “sustaining of attention”. To sustain attention is to concentrate one’s activity continuously upon some object or happening or problem. Thus, there is no wandering of individual attention, which always remains on track and the activity proceeds systematically without any serious distraction. To achieve the desired objectives, in reasonable time the habit of paying sustained attention is very helpful. A child who cannot sustain attention for a reasonable period is sure to lag behind in his studies. External and internal factors stimulate attention. The external factors include nature of the stimulus ( for e.g. picture vs. words; colored vs. black & white), intensity and size of the stimulus (for e.g. loud sound, bright color, strong smell, size), contrast, change and variety, repetition and movement of stimulus. The internal factors or conditions are: Interest and attention, motives and mental Set 6. Mental Set Mental set is an important factor for securing attention. Mental Set means the tendency or bent of the whole mind. A person always attends to those objects towards which his mind has set. Thus the attitude of the learner usually affects the learning process vitally, and learning takes place when the learner is prepared physically as well as psychologically. This mental set gives the green signal to proceed further towards the accomplishment of a task. Lack of confidence in one’s own ability to learn, dislike for the teacher, unwillingness to cooperate, inability to find some sense or value in learning are some of the negative mental set which may affect unfavorably the child’s ability to learn. A spirit of cooperation between the teacher and the pupil and confidence in one’s own ability to learn are necessary for getting the best results. Thus attention is an indispensable factor for successful learning. 7. Interest Interest is an affective disposition, which evokes attention and maintains it. Interest is not activity. It is a permanent tendency or a mental structure, which supplies sufficiently motivating power to any activity. Interest is sometimes innate and sometimes acquired. In the fulfillment of instinctive needs, the animal naturally shows interest. The Lion is interested in the Goat and the Goat is interested in Green leaves. Besides the instinctive interest there are some acquired interests as well. For e.g. the scientist is interested in his laboratory instruments while it will be of no interest to a layman. Thus individuals develop different interests according to  8 their disposition, attention, economic, social, and political status etc. The acquired interest depends upon experience. The interest is directly related to the emotions and desires. The activity, thing or individual in which we are interested finds a place in our inner life and we develop it through our emotions towards it. It is not necessary that the interest should be permanent. Things, which do not fulfill any permanent, need evoke only temporary interest. As the need is fulfilled, the individual ceases to take interest in such objects. For e.g. if a man has to cross a river, he will be very much interested in the boat, but after he crosses the river his interest in the boat will also come to an end. Permanent interests are related to emotions and sentiments. They are permanent mental conditions. According to Drever, interest is a disposition in its dynamic aspect. Interest is not an affective experience, but an affective tendency. It is not a mental process, but mental structure. 8. Fatigue Learning seldom causes fatigue even though energy is required to engage in mental work. Feelings of fatigue, however, are known to result if learning conditions are unfavorable. Inadequate lighting, extreme temperature, humidity, poor-posture, subnormal physical conditions, emotional disturbance, or boredom in connection with the activity may produce severe feelings of fatigue. An enthusiastic attitude towards what one does; an interest in subject matter, a desire to achieve success – all together tend to remove fatigue elements. This does not mean that a learner should study for a long stretch of time, without rest. He needs change of activity, either mental or physical, if he wishes to avoid fatigue. Boredom rather than fatigue is likely to result when a pupil engages in learning activities against his will. If a learner is very much interested in achieving success then he will rarely experience boredom or fatigue. If, in spite of all efforts to remove fatigue the individual is still fatigued of learning, then it may be due to extremely inefficient learning habits, and should be corrected with the help and guidance of the teacher or an expert. 9. Motivation Motive is an internal force, which organizes, directs and reinforces the energy required for any response. Motives direct behavior, encourage a learner in his learning activities and act as selectors of the type of activity in which the person desires to engage. Motivation is a state of the organism, which involves the existence of a need that drives the organism from within, and directs its activities to a goal that can bring about satisfaction of the need, which refers to a condition that prompts us to act. Two types of Motivation: Intrinsic Motivation & Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation is directly linked with the natural instincts, urges and impulses of the organism. It is defined as a state in which an individual wants to do or learn something for his own satisfaction and pleasure. A person who is intrinsically motivated performs an act because its very performance is pleasing and its outcome satisfying. There is close relationship between the task to be learned and the goal of the learner, and the student learns through an insight into the real worth of learning. An intrinsically motivated person will undertake an activity because he wants to do that and he will be likely to do so whether anyone requires it or not.  9 Extrinsic Motivation is defined as a state in which the individual learn something not for its own sake, but as a need for obtaining some desired goals. In such motivation, the source of pleasure does not lie within the task, and does not have any functional relationship top the task. For e.g. learning for the fear of punishment or failure or for obtaining a higher grade In comparison to extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation is a source of spontaneous inspiration and stimulation, and brings better results in the teaching – learning process. Thus, intrinsic motivation should be preferred to extrinsic motivation. However, depending upon the learning situation and the nature of the task, the choice for providing appropriate motivation should be made by the teacher so that the learner may take genuine interest in the learning activity. Strategies to provide Motivation for Pupils 1. Teaching through Child-centered activity-based approach. 2. Linking the new learning with the past i.e., Transfer of learning 3. Using effective teaching methods, aids and devices for teaching. 4. Ego-involvement in teaching and learning. 5. Development of proper attitude or Mental set 6. Providing attractive learning situation and environment. 7. Stimulus variation by the teacher 8. Reinforcement – appropriate use of Praise and Blame; Rewards and Punishment 9. Setting attainable goals 10. Knowledge of goals and procedures 11. Providing experiences of success and failure 12. Healthy competition and co-operation 13. Competition with one’s own past record 14. Feedback – knowledge of progress 15. Novelty 16. Considering the individual differences of children 17. Active involvement of the students 18. Linking with environment 19. Use of appropriate and attractive aids 20. Teacher’s own motivation and interest in teaching 21. Teaching skills  10 Motivational Cycle Dissatisfaction of a need creates Needs feelings of deficiency and tension Drive Goal Goal achievement leads to relief, satisfaction and fulfillment Drive triggers goal-directed behavior and positive action Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow wanted to understand what motivates people. He believed that people possess a set of motivation systems unrelated to rewards or unconscious desires. Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fulfill the next one, and so on. The earliest and most widespread version of Maslow's (1943, 1954) hierarchy of needs includes five motivational needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. This five stage model can be divided into basic (or deficiency) needs (e.g. physiological, safety, love, and esteem) and growth needs (self- actualization). The deficiency or basic needs are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the need to fulfill such needs will become stronger, the longer the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food the more hungry they will become. One must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. Once these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualization. Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs. Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully  11 self-actualized because our society rewards motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs. The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes: 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear. 3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, affection and love, - from work group, family, friends, romantic relationships. 4. Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self- respect, respect from others. 5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Maslow's five stage model has been expanded to include cognitive and aesthetic needs (Maslow, 1970a) and later transcendence needs 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, etc. 3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, affection and love, - from work group, family, friends, romantic relationships. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc. 6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. 7. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. 8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization.  12 Self-actualization Instead of focusing on psychopathology and what goes wrong with people, Maslow formulated a more positive account of human behavior which focused on what goes right. He was interested in human potential, and how we fulfill that potential. Abraham Maslow stated that human motivation is based on people seeking fulfillment and change through personal growth. Self-actualized people are those who were fulfilled and doing all they were capable of. The growth of self-actualization refers to the need for personal growth and discovery that is present throughout a person’s life. For Maslow, a person is always 'becoming' and never remains static in these terms. In self-actualization a person comes to find a meaning to life that is important to them. As each person is unique the motivation for self-actualization leads people in different directions. For some people self-actualization can be achieved through creating works of art or literature, for others through sport, in the classroom, or within a corporate setting. Maslow believed self-actualization could be measured through the concept of peak experiences. This occurs when a person experiences the world totally for what it is, and there are feelings of euphoria, joy and wonder. It is important to note that self-actualization is a continual process of becoming rather than a perfect state one reaches of a 'happy ever after'. According to Maslow self-actualization refers to the person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially. The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in inventions. Although we are all, theoretically, capable of self-actualizing, most of us will not do so, or only to a limited degree. Maslow estimated that only two percent of people will reach the state of self actualization. He was particularly interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as persons. By studying 18 people he considered to be self-actualized, Maslow identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualized person. Characteristics of self-actualizers: 1. They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty; 2. Accept themselves and others for what they are; 3. Spontaneous in thought and action; 4. Problem-centered (not self-centered); 5. Unusual sense of humor; 6. Able to look at life objectively; 7. Highly creative; 8. Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional; 9. Concerned for the welfare of humanity; 10. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience; 11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few people; 12. Peak experiences; 13. Need for privacy; 14. Democratic attitudes; 15. Strong moral/ethical standards.  13 Behavior leading to self-actualization: a) Experiencing life like a child, with full absorption and concentration; b) Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths; c) Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of the voice of tradition, authority or the majority; d) Avoiding pretense ('game playing') and being honest; e) Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the majority; f) Taking responsibility and working hard; g) Trying to identify your defenses and having the courage to give them up. The characteristics of self-actualizers and the behaviors leading to self-actualization are shown in the list above. Although people achieve self-actualization in their own unique way, they tend to share certain characteristics. However, self-actualization is a matter of degree, 'There are no perfect human beings'. It is not necessary to display all 15 characteristics to become self- actualized, and not only self-actualized people will display them. Maslow did not equate self- actualization with perfection. Self-actualization merely involves achieving ones potential. Thus, someone can be silly, wasteful, vain and impolite, and still self-actualize. Less than two percent of the population achieves self-actualization. Educational applications Maslow's (1968) hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to teaching and classroom management in schools. Rather than reducing behavior to a response in the environment, Maslow (1970a) adopts a holistic approach to education and learning. Maslow looks at the entire physical, emotional, social, and intellectual qualities of an individual and how they impact on learning. Applications of Maslow's hierarchy theory to the work of the classroom teacher are obvious. Before a student's cognitive needs can be met they must first fulfill their basic physiological needs. For example a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential. Maslow suggests students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the classroom and the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with a low self-esteem will not progress academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened.  14 LEARNING CURVE Learning Curve is a graphic representation of how learning takes place in a particular situation. The course of learning can be depicted and described graphically by drawing learning curves against horizontal and vertical scales (X-Y Axis). The units of time or the number of trials needed for learning are plotted along the X-Axis, and the amount learned is plotted along the Y-Axis. The S-type curve then obtained is called a Learning Curve. Plateau Fig (i) The three different types of Learning curves are the following: 1. Positively – accelerated Learning Curve – which shows slow initial improvement in learning which increases with time ultimately leading towards the mastery over the learning material. These types of curves are often seen in the learning situations where the task is new or difficult or when the learner is not familiar with the task or when the learner has not received any prior practice in performing such tasks. Fig (ii) 2. Negatively - accelerated Learning Curve –shows rapid initial improvement in learning, and slows down with time. Such learning curves are obtained when the learning situations task is simple, familiar or when the learner has had similar previous practice.  15 Fig (iii) 3. Combination type of Learning Curve: In practical situations, smooth curves as shown in Fig (i), Fig (ii), and Fig (iii) are rarely obtained. Usually there will be fluctuations or ups and downs in the curve depending upon the variables, which influence the learning process. Such curves are normally obtained in situations where the entire learning of a task is from zero performance to its mastery. Fluctuations Plateau Plateaus in Learning Occasionally, during the course of learning, the higher order learning and the lower order learning conflict, as a result there is a period of no improvement in the learning curve. This is described to as a “Plateau”. Thus, a Plateau in a learning curve is a period of no improvement, preceded and followed by periods of improvement in learning. A plateau signifies those periods in learning where, apparently, the growth and improvement in learning is almost arrested. According to Woodworth and Marquis, “a long flat stretch in the learning curve, a long period of almost no improvement is called a plateau, provided it is followed by more improvement” Nothing definitely can be said about the time, place, length, and number of plateaus in a learning curve. The nature of the learner, learning material, and the learning environment are all responsible for plateaus.  16 Causes of Plateau 1. Poor or faulty method of work 2. Physical as well as mental fatigue or boredom 3. Too much difficulty or complexity of the task 4. Lack of proper motivation and loss of interest 5. Poor and unfavorable environment and working conditions 6. Mental or physical illness of the learner 7. Lack of proper attention 8. Satisfaction of the learner with moderate achievement. Measures for avoiding / overcoming plateaus 1. Adopting efficient methods of teaching 2. Helping children in the selection of appropriate methods of work or learning 3. Acquainting them with clear-cut goals or aims of the task at hand 4. Arousing and maintaining interest in the work 5. Arranging learning experiences according to the interest and increasing level of difficulty or complexity 6. Suggesting the learner to discontinue practice or to leave the task in hand for the time being when a period of no improvement is reached 7. Advising the learner to change his methods or engage in other aspects of work 8. Providing sufficient motivation and incentives 9. Minimizing the distracting factors and taking care of the learning environment Advantages of Learning Curves The learning curve shows the rate of improvement of individual students in various learning situations, which can be helpful to teachers as well as students in the following ways: 1. The teacher can equip himself with the knowledge of individual differences in learning among his students. 2. He can keep a proper account of the regular progress of his students through the learning curve. 3. He can give a second thought to his methods and techniques of teaching and learning experiences given, as well as the learning environment provided. 4. Students may also acquaint themselves with their own progress and it can also give them the opportunity of self-appraisal. 5. The study of fluctuations and plateaus reveal many things about the emotional temperament and other personality characteristics of the learner. A wise teacher can make use of this knowledge in studying the behavior of his students.  17 TRANSFER OF LEARNING It is impossible to train a person in every detail for meeting every day life situation. It is the function of the school to include the learning opportunities to help the learner to acquire those attitudes, habits, skills and knowledge that shall serve as the basis of application in his day-to-day life. The extent to which the learning of one thing in one situation helps in the learning of something else in another situation, or the spread of learning is usually called transfer of training. According to Crow and Crow, “transfer of training is the the carry over of habits of thinking, feeling, or working, of knowledge or of skills, from one learning area to another”. According to Sorenson: “Transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge, training and habits acquired in one situation to another situation”. Thus, transfer is a process in which some influence is exercised over the new learning or performance by the previous learning. Transfer of training involves the possibilities of negative and adverse effect besides the positive and favorable ones, thus, there are three forms of transfer – positive, negative and zero. o Positive Transfer: Transfer is said to be positive when something learned previously helps the performance or learning in a new situation. o Negative Transfer: When something learned previously hinders or blocks the performance or learning in a new situation, it is called negative transfer. o Zero Transfer: If the previous learning makes no difference at all to the performance or learning in a new situation, there is said to be zero transfer from the previous situation to the new one. Apart from these three forms, Gagne identified lateral or horizontal transfer which occurs when past learning is transferred to the present learning and vertical transfer where transfer is carried from lower - order learning to higher - order learning. Theories of Transfer of Training: The oldest theory regarding transfer of training is Theory of Formal Discipline. The Three contemporary theories of transfer of training which are supported by experimental data are: Theory of Identical Elements / Components, Theory of Transposition and Theory of Generalization or Theory of Principles. 1. Theory of Formal Discipline: explains an older view of the nature of transfer of training. According to this theory, mind is made up of faculties that can be strengthened through exercise just as how muscles are strengthened through physical exercise. This theory was  18 advanced to support the study of Latin and Greek in high school curriculum under the argument that such subjects provide the discipline necessary to strengthen the mental faculties. The theory of formal discipline has been largely disapproved by experiments conducted by Thorndike (1924). 2. Theory of Identical Elements / Components: proposed by Thorndike and Woodworth, suggests that in a new situation the learner takes advantage of what the new situation has in common with earlier ones. Thus a student is helped in learning Zoology, by knowing how to use the Microscope – a skill which he has already learned in Botany. 3. Theory of Generalization or Theory of Principles: proposed by Charles. H. Judd explains that transfer of learning is possible only when the individual is trained to behave properly in various situations and not only in one specific situation. This implies that the learning or training achieved in one situation will not be transferred unless these skills, facts or even habits are systematically related to other new situations in which they can be utilized. Further, in the Theory of Principles proposed by Judd, transfer is involved when a learner applies a principle which he has already learned in an old situation for learning in a new situation with full awareness of what he is doing. For e.g. Principles of reasoning learned in mathematics are equally applicable in logic; the principle of flying kites learned by Wright brothers could be easily used in building an airplane. Judd proposed that it is not objective identities, but the appropriate application of principles / generalizations already learnt in previous situations which facilitate transfer and thereby learning in new situations. 4. Theory of Transposition: proposed by Gestalt psychologists’ states that transfer depends upon the equivalences or similarities between old and new learning. Here transfer is a process of mental adaptation and reorganization of experiences or in other words it is a restructuring of the cognitive field. How to achieve maximum positive Transfer? Transfer of training brings economy and effectiveness in the learning process. Through transfer, what one learns or experiences in some previous situation can either be utilized for the learning in the new situation or it can be applied to the solution of the day to day problems. Therefore, a wise teacher should try to secure maximum transfer so that the child can be benefited properly from his earlier experiences and training. Suggestions to achieve positive transfer are:  19 1. Making modifications in the school curriculum:  To provide adequate opportunities for the transfer of knowledge, skills, habits and attitudes acquired in classroom to life situations.  Content should be chosen with reference to the learners present and future needs.  The curriculum as a whole should reflect a close integration within the different subjects. 2. Making modifications in the methods of instruction through the following ways:  Provision should be made for the integration of theory and practical.  Identical elements in two different situations should be identified and their relationship pointed out.  Rote learning should never be encouraged.  Principle of correlation should be followed.  Verbal illustration and audio-visual materials should be used.  Proper attention should be paid on the process and product of learning.  Train pupils to adopt discovery and problem-solving approach.  Make children discover formulae, rules & principles on the basis of his experiences, and provide opportunity for practice of the use of generalized principles. 3. Making due preparation on the part of the learner:  to develop an attitude of transferability, so that they may make conscious and deliberate efforts for transfer of learning and experiences. This can be done by taking the learner in confidence, and encouraging him to perceive the relevant relationship between two situations, and imparting proper training to practice transfer of learning. 4. Making due preparation on the part of the teacher: Transfer depends much upon the will, ability and conscious efforts of the teacher. Every teacher should realize the importance of transfer in the teaching-learning process, and he himself should get proper training for achieving maximum transfer of things he teaches. 5. Development of desirable attitudes and ideals:  In the learner towards the subject of learning and also to the processes of learning.  In the teacher towards the subject of teaching as well as to teaching profession itself.  20 STUDY HABITS Studying is a skill. Being successful in school requires a high level of study skills. Students must first learn these skills, practice them and develop effective study habits in order to be successful. Study habits are the habitual practices one uses to help them study and learn. Good study habits can help students achieve and/or maintain good grades. Very often the study habits and practices developed and used in high school do not work for students in college. Good study habits include many different skills: time management, self discipline, concentration, memorization, organization, along with effort and desire to succeed. Understand your learning style preferences Knowing how you learn best is the first step in developing effective study habits. Every student approaches the task of learning differently. Every student has a unique and personal learning style or a preferred channel through which learning comes more easily. We all use all three learning channels. In fact, we use all our senses in learning about the world around us, but each of us has a tendency to lean more heavily on one of the three learning channels – visual, auditory, or hands on. You can improve your study habits by developing all three learning channels. TO IMPROVE AS A VISUAL LEARNER… 1. visualize what you are studying 2. use color in your notes (colored pens, highlighters, etc.) 3. visualize what the instructor is lecturing about 4. draw pictures and diagrams use mind maps in your notes 5. use picture and graphics to reinforce learning 6. learn from video TO IMPROVE AS AN AUDITORY LEARNER… 1. listen to tapes of recorded assignments 2. tape record your own textbook reading 3. read out loud talk over ideas from class and what you are studying with other students 4. participate in class discussions 5. listen to audiotapes on the subject TO IMPROVE AS A TACTILE LEARNER… 1. stand up and move around while you are studying 2. take frequent breaks while studying 3. make use of your hands and write things down as you study 4. use the computer to reinforce learning 5. be physically active; experiment with objects 6. memorize or drill while walking or exercising  21 WHEN TO STUDY 1. Daily reviews: Study begins on the first day of class. Successful students read and review notes before each class to recall information from the previous class and to warm up for learning. Review your notes immediately after each class to reinforce learning or within a 24-hour period for best recall. Repeated exposure to the material will store it in your long- term memory. Studying one hour immediately after a class will do more good in developing an understanding of the material as several hours a few days later. Studies show that as much as 80 % of material learned in class is forgotten within 24 hours if there is no review. 2. Weekly reviews: At the end of the week go over your notes for the week. This refreshes your memory and promotes better recall of the material. Repetition is the key to remembering. The more times you look at the material, the stronger you make the neural (brain) pathways that lead to the material. This makes recall much easier. 3. Pre-exam reviews: These reviews are longer, from 3 - 5 hours. Break your study sessions into one-hour blocks with ten-minute breaks in between. Get up, stretch, get a drink, and move around during your break. The more active you are, the more effective your study time will be. A tired body only makes a tired mind. 4. Peak Study Times: Study when you are at your peak, when you are more awake and alert and able to absorb new information. If you are a morning person, your best study time is in the morning. If you are an evening person, study at night. If you cannot find time to study at your peak time, try to study when you are feeling relatively awake and alert. 5. Bonus Study Time: Whenever you have extra time, study. Write notes on 3x5 cards and have them with you. Whenever you have free time, such as when waiting for appointments, study your notes. Practice tape recording your notes and listening to them while travelling to school. Study whenever you find yourself having an unexpected break, a free hour, a canceled class, etc. Don't forget that weekend evenings can also be used for studying. STATE YOUR INTENTION... Why are you studying and what do you intend to gain from it? Ask yourself this question every time you sit down to study. Half-hearted or distracted studying is a waste of time. Relate studying to your life goals. If your life and future depended on how well or how much you studied, would it make sense to do it well? If you cannot see the point in studying, it will only make it boring and tedious. Think about your goals. Ask yourself, “Is this what I really want to be doing?” "What do I hope to gain from this?" You have to put meaning into your studies in order for them to be meaningful to you.  22 ORGANIZE YOUR TIME... 1. Plan your study time. Leave enough time for each of your subjects and more time for difficult subjects. Most college classes require about six hours of study per week or two hours of study for every hour in class. If you are a slow reader or have other study problems, you may need to plan more time. 2. Prioritize your time and put off other activities to allow for adequate study time. You may find it necessary to postpone or eliminate certain activities in order to fulfill your goals. 3. Keep a weekly and monthly schedule planner in which to record due dates of assignments, tests, papers, field trips, etc. Transfer important dates from your syllabus to your weekly/monthly planner. 4. Schedule study times daily in your planner. Be sure to plan extra time for long study sessions before tests. Schedule time for weekly reviews of all your notes from the beginning of class to the present. 5. Scheduling long-term assignments Some assignments will span a week, a month or even a semester. You are likely to leave these important assignments to the last minute if you don’t schedule time for them in your daily schedule. Get started on these early, by allotting time for them each day in your daily planner. 6. Scheduling for student with jobs If you have a full or part-time job, you probably have less time to study than nonworking students. You must use your time very carefully. Your daily schedule should include a list of things to do, in order of priority. To be successful, you must have a sense of urgency about referring to your list and studying whenever an opportunity presents itself. Cross off tasks as you complete them, including your study tasks. Take advantage of spare moments when you can study while waiting for a class to begin, when stuck in traffic, or while waiting for a doctor’s appointment. The easiest way to do this is to convert your notes to 3x5 or 5x8 cards that you can carry with you, or record your notes on a cassette. Some students make it a habit to listen to recorded notes while driving to and from school or work. 7. Organize Your Study Area... Keep notes and handouts from class in a 3-ring binder. This is useful because you can add pages to it, copy notes that were missed from other students, and add handouts from class in the proper sections. You can also put index tabs marking different topics in your note binder. Study in an area that is set up for serious study. Have your tools for study: notebooks, textbooks, pens, pencils, computer, dictionary, thesaurus, etc. Be sure the area is well-lit, free from noise and distractions, and not too comfortable. Control for interruptions like phones ringing, doors opening and closing, and people coming and going. Try to study in the same place everyday. 8. Studying with children underfoot… For anyone who has tried to study with children around, the task is usually frustrating and sometimes impossible, depending on the age of the children.  23 HOW TO STUDY Reading and Studying Textbooks: As soon as you buy your textbook for a class, give yourself a head start before going to class. Read the Table of Contents, prefaces, introduction, and any other up-front material in the book. Leaf through the book and see what it contains. Read the captions, read chapter titles, and go to the back of the book to see if there is a glossary, an index, answers to quizzes given throughout the text, etc. Get familiar with your book. Treat it like a tool you want to use with proficiency. When you are ready to begin reading a chapter, don’t just plunge into your reading. Here is a sure-fire way to get the most out of your reading: 1. Preview the chapter. Look at headings, subheadings, topic sentences, boldfaced and italicized words, pictures, diagrams, graphs, summaries, and review questions at the end. 2. Ask yourself questions about the subheadings. 3. Read a section of the chapter (one subheading at a time). Put the book down and ask yourself what you just read. Did you understand what it was about? Could you answer questions about it? Could you explain it to someone else? Continue reading and stopping to think about what you just read. Ask yourself questions. 4. Don’t skip any part of the chapter. Read the sidelines, the captions under photos, definitions, and any additional information the author has included. It’s all there to help you learn. 5. Don’t be afraid to mark your text – use different colored highlighters for particularly important parts, but don’t defeat the purpose of highlighting by overdoing it. 6. Outline the chapter: When you have read the chapter through, go back and take notes. Define terms, draw diagrams, and explain things in your own words. Make up memory tricks to help you remember new terms. For example, if you are studying the part of the brain called the “hippocampus” you may use a memory trick of association, picturing a “hippo” with a good memory, since the hippocampus deals with memory formation. 7. Draw arrows or other symbols to direct you to important details or definitions. If a word appears that you do not know, look it up and write the definition in the margin. Underline key points. 8. Follow the SQ3R Method of reading. This method was developed to help people read faster and study better. It is similar to the information you just read, with some added details. SQ3R Method of Reading SURVEY ----- QUESTION ----- READ ----- RECITE ----- REVIEW Survey: This step takes only a few minutes. Go through the chapter quickly. Glance at the chapter title, the introduction, headings, and summary paragraphs, if any. Notice any pictures, diagrams, graphs, tables, etc. Read any bold print. Previewing your text gives you some background about topics you may have never encountered before. You pick up general information. You know where to find information. You gain a better idea of how the  24 information is organized and presented. It opens up a place in your brain where the new information will be stored. It saves time by reducing the amount of time it takes to read the chapter. Another advantage is that it creates an interest in what is coming up. It motivates you to read less interesting material to get to the “good stuff.” Question: Before you begin reading a section, turn the heading into a question. For example, if the heading is Basic Causes of Stress, your question would be "What are the basic causes of stress?" This arouses your curiosity and increases your comprehension. It also brings to mind information you already know. The questions you ask help make important points stand out as you read. This forces you to think about what you are reading. Read: Read the material under the heading with the purpose of getting the answer to your question. Read with concentration. Identify the main ideas and highlight or underline them. Read sections at a time and stop to ask questions. Jot down notes and ask yourself what you just read. If you can answer your question, read on. If not, look it over again. A good practice for more difficult reading is to do an outline of chapter in your notes. By leaving extra space you can fill in details during the class lecture. Make note of new vocabulary and write definitions in your notes. Recite: This step requires that you recite out loud the answer to the question you asked prior to reading a section of the text. Say it in your own words. If you find you cannot answer your question, go back and look for the answer, then try again. This way you will know if you have understood the material. Besides answering your questions, look away from the book and try to state in your own words what the reading is about. You may jot down brief notes about what you read. When you are done, go back and make an outline of the chapter. Review: After you have read the entire chapter, look over the notes you made to familiarize yourself with the important information. Check your memory by reciting the main points out loud. Then review the main points in your notes, making sure you understand them. Add to your notes from the text, if necessary. Always do a review of the chapter after completing your reading. Then do quick reviews before and after each class. Do longer, more in-depth reviews before exams. Don’t wait until exam time to review your textbook. Review once a week all the materials studied during that week. Be sure you can summarize the key points. Write them down to further reinforce learning. Finally, make up test questions from what you have read. Be sure to write them down and answer them. ADVANTAGES OF THE SQ3R METHOD The SQ3R Method of reading sets the stage for interacting with your text material. As you go through the five steps you are gaining information, formulating questions, thinking about what you are reading, and trying to find answers to your questions. You are also reciting information out loud. All of these steps require the use of your auditory, visual and kinesthetic senses. When more senses are involved, more effective learning takes place.  25 SOME ADDITIONAL TIPS FOR READING TEXTBOOKS: Know what to read by following your syllabus or list of assignments. Never fall behind, but always stay ahead in your reading. Divide chapters into readable chunks. Reading ten pages at a time will seem manageable compared to reading forty pages. Always preview the chapter before you read. If your text has any practice tests, do them. Pay particular attention to the essay questions. If you can answer them, you will have a good grasp of the information in the chapter. MOVING FROM SHORT-TERM TO LONG-TERM MEMORY The key to remembering what you study is to move information from the temporary short-term memory to the long-term memory. These next tips will help you do this. They are simple and fun to use and the results you will get will be amazing. Visualize: Try to see what you are reading. Get a feel for the subject. Make it come alive for you. If you read about insects, try to feel them wiggle in your hand and imagine sounds they might make. The more senses you use, the stronger you make the neural pathways in your brain and the better you remember the information. Highlight: Highlight, mark, underline, and deface your text! Make it a tool to work with. Write questions and comments in the margins. Even though you may not be able to resell it, consider the benefits you'll get using your text as a study tool. Talk About It: Talk about what you're reading. Share the information with others. This helps to reinforce learning and proves whether or not you understand the information. Talk about what you are studying. The best place to do this is in a study group where you can discuss the material, quiz each other, and share information. Review: Review, review and review again! Go over notes, outlines and the text. Read the highlighted parts out loud. Develop a habit of regular review to move information from your short-term to your long-term memory USE YOUR NOTES If note-taking is a weak area for you, review the study skills module on NoteTaking. The following tips are also helpful: Add to your notes. Supplement the notes you took in class with extra material from the text and handouts. Always leave plenty of extra space in your notes for this. Define terms heard in class. When you hear unfamiliar words in class, write them in your notes as best you can, then look them up later, getting the correct spelling and definition in your notes. Clean up or rewrite your notes. If notes are too scribbled or difficult to read, copy them again. Summarize your notes at the end of each topic or chapter.  26 CREATE REVIEW TOOLS Review tools will help make studying more interesting and effective. Design your own tools or work with a group or study partner to develop them. Following are some suggestions for study tools: Concept maps - create a visual diagram of your notes with the central topic at the top middle of the paper and the remaining concepts branching off from the central point. Study checklists - make a list of all the topics you are going to study and check off as you go along. 3X5 CARDS These are excellent review tools for many reasons. They consolidate information in a format that is easy to read, they are small and easy to carry, and they allow for review during free times without requiring that you take out books and notes. A main topic or question is written on one side, the details, facts, or answers to the question are written on the back. Use Memory Tricks Mnemonic devices or memory tricks help you remember factual information like names, dates, formulas, or other information that requires rote memorization. Some sample mnemonic devices are: Rhymes: "In 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue." "Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November..." Creative Sentences: "My very eager mother just served us nine potatoes." (the planets in order from the sun) Acronyms: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) ROY G BIV (the colors of the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet) IPMAT (stages of cell division: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telephase) EGBDF - every good boy does fine (lines of the treble clef) JOIN A STUDY GROUP A good study group can be one of the most effective means of studying. It helps to combine the efforts of different minds, increase your storehouse of information, learn new study techniques, and allows you to share notes and information. It reinforces learning through discussion, questioning, repetition, and reinforcement. If you can't find a study group, organize one. Set rules, limit the size of the group, and make it an effective study session, not a social gathering. Study groups require the same organization and time management as private study sessions.