Unit 1: Introduction to Psychology PDF

Unit 1: Introduction to psychology Introduction to psychology Definition, history and schools of psychology Scope of psychology Meaning and definition of clinical psychology Historical development, modern clinical psychology Current status of clinical psychology Significance of clinical psych...

Unit 1: Introduction to psychology Introduction to psychology Definition, history and schools of psychology Scope of psychology Meaning and definition of clinical psychology Historical development, modern clinical psychology Current status of clinical psychology Significance of clinical psychology in health sciences Role of clinical psychology in speech and hearing Concept of normality Concept of abnormality psychology history & schools of psychology  History Western history dates to Greek civilization Aristotle’s book “Peri-psyche” Psyche means ‘soul’ Hints that soul moves across people, birth and things  History Modern era: 17th century philosopher Rene Descartes Distinguished ‘mind’ and ‘matter’ or ‘physical’ and ‘mental’ Psychology recognized as ‘study of mind’  History 18th century: EB Titchner & William James Describe psychology as ‘study of consciousness’  History Structuralism (EB Titchner) Study of structure of consciousness Functionalism (William James) Study of functions of consciousness  History Wilhelm Wundt-Father of Psychology Formal establishment of Psychology Laboratory at Leipzig (Germany) in 1879  History Contributions from Sigmund Freud Theory of Human Psyche Theory of Psychopathology  History Behaviorism: JB Watson Science of Behavior Behaviors are ‘observable and measurable actions’ Examples Angry (-) Hits Others (+) Naughty (-) Pulls Hair (+)  Definition Systematic and scientific study of human and animal behavior -Morgan & King (1986) Scientific study of behavior & mental processes -Atkinson et al (1991) Psychology schools of psychology Structuralism (EB Titchner) wanted to analyse the building blocks of the conscious experience analysed the structure of the mind through introspection (describe in detail, their own mental processes or experiences) (could not be verified by outside. observers) Functionalism (William James) psychology should study what the mind does and how behaviour functions in making people deal with their environment (e.g., how behaviour enabled people to satisfy their needs) Gestalt psychology a reaction to the structuralism It focused on the organisation of perceptual experiences. Instead of looking at the components of the mind, the Gestalt psychologists argued that when we look at the world our perceptual experience is more than the sum of the components of the perception In other words, what we perceptual experience is more than the inputs received from our environment  Behaviorism: JB Watson rejected the ideas of mind and consciousness (Not observable; subjective; cannot be verified by another observer) scientific psychology must focus on what is observable and verifiable He defined psychology as a study of behaviour or responses (to stimuli) which can be measured and studied objectively. psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of unconscious desires and conflicts He founded psychoanalysis as a system to understand and cure psychological disorders viewed human beings as motivated by unconscious desire for gratification of pleasure seeking desires humanistic perspective: Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow took a more positive view of human nature emphasised the free will of human beings and their natural striving to grow and unfold their inner potential cognitive perspective focuses on how we know about the world Cognition is the process of knowing It involves thinking, understanding, perceiving, memorising, problem solving and a host of other mental processes by which our knowledge of the world develops, making us able to deal with the environment in specific ways Branch of Psychology General Psychology Job satisfaction Abnormal Psychology Attitudes and actions Clinical Psychology Instructional strategies Child/Developmental Psychology Neural communication Educational Psychology Psychotherapy Social Psychology Explicit and implicit memory Industrial/Organizational instinctive behaviour Psychology Physiological Psychology Teratogens (harmful agents that harm the developing embryo) Animal Psychology Obsessions, Compulsions  Scope General Psychology Study of basic concepts & theories related to various dimensions of behaviour Intelligence Personality Learning  Scope Abnormal Psychology Study of those behaviours that are labeled abnormal Abnormality is relative  Scope Abnormal Psychology -Study of those behaviours that are labeled abnormal The application of the understanding achieved in the field of abnormal psychology to actual clinical practice is CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY  Scope Child/Developmental Psychology Understand children & their behaviour at different stages of development Educational Psychology Study of teaching & learning behaviour  Scope Social Psychology study of individual behaviour in social context Industrial/Organizational Psychology study of individual behaviour in the context of work & industry  Scope Physiological Psychology study of body basis of behaviour Animal Psychology Study of animal behaviour to understand human behavior Why an individual behaves in a particular way? Why there is an individual difference in the behavior? How can I understand ones behavior? Can we predict an individual’s behavior? Can we control an individual’s behavior? Psychology is the science which describes (Description), understands ( Understanding), Predicts ( Prediction) & Evolutionary perspective Bio- psychological perspective Psycho diagnostic perceptive Behavioral perspective Cognitive perspective Humanistic perspective  Chapter 1 of Chapter 2 of WHAT IS CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY? Clinical psychology is an applied science in which the principles of psychology are utilized to understand, help & alleviate human problems  American Psychological Association (APA) defines clinical psychology as follows: The field of Clinical Psychology integrates science, theory, and practice to understand, predict, and alleviate maladjustment, disability, and discomfort as well as to promote human adaptation, adjustment, and personal development. Clinical Psychology focuses on the intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social, and behavioural aspects of human functioning across Lightner Witmer founded clinical psychology The first to use the term clinical psychology in print (1907) the first to operate a psychological clinic (1896) At his clinic, the first clients were children with behavioral or educational problems. However, even in his earliest writings, Witmer (1907) foresaw clinical psychology as applicable to people of all ages and with a variety of presenting problems Hippocrates was the ancient Greek founder of medicine, always a close professional cousin of clinical psychology and a scientific model for psychology in general. Theodule Ribot led the development of psychology as an academic discipline in 19th- century France, as one primarily focused on clinical issues. Alfred Binet, also in France, devised the first practical “intelligence” test in 1905; administering such tests was among the most common activities of early clinical psychologists Leta Hollingworth was an early practitioner who played a large role in the development of organized clinical psychology beginning in 1917 Sigmund Freud founded psychoanalysis, the first influential form of psychotherapy practiced by clinical psychologists, among others. Hans Eysenck was among the earliest to conceptualize behaviour therapy and to promote the use of what have come to be known as evidence-based methods of intervention in clinical psychology. Joseph Wolpe B F Skinner Behavioural principles had a profound influence on research and the practice of therapy Aaron T Beck: A pioneer in the area of cognitive therapy EVIDENCE- BASED PRACTICES Establishing effective, science-based practice and application of psychological services has emerged as one of the dominant challenges in mental health. NIMH Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research(1989) heralded a new era for the treatments of psychopathology emphasizing on the use of “evidence- based” treatments of psychopathology There is an impressive range of psychosocial interventions supported by evidence (such as cognitive therapy (CT) and cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) for depression, panic disorder , to TRAINING: Currently, there are THREE distinct approaches to training. the scientist-practitioner (Boulder) approach, with roughly equal emphasis on empiricism and practice; the practitioner-scholar (Vail) approach, with stronger emphasis on practice; and the clinical scientist approach, with stronger emphasis on empiricism. SCOPE: Where Do Clinical Psychologists Work? clinical psychologists work in a wide variety of settings but that private practice is the most common. the second-place finisher is university psychology department and their primary work setting includes psychiatric hospitals, general hospitals, community mental health centres, medical schools. SCOPE: What Do Clinical Psychologists Do? Clinical psychologists are engaged in an enormous range of professional activities, but psychotherapy is foremost. Other activities: diagnosis/assessment, teaching, supervision, research/writing, consultation, and administration. Of these, diagnosis and assessment generally occupy more of clinical psychologists’ time than do the others.  PROBLEMS RESULT NOT FROM THE EVENTS, BUT FROM THE WAY A PERSON THINKS ABOUT THE EVENTS Connect all the dots using only 4 straight lines; without lifting the pencil. Each line can be long or short as you like; and a dot may be crossed by multiple lines (60 seconds) WE MUST GO OUTSIDE THE PROBLEM OF THE DOTS/RESTRICTIONS TO BE ABLE TO SOLVE IT Relevance to Speech, Hearing & Language Psychology is the study of human behavior Speech Hearing & Listening are forms of behavior Language Therefore, the study of speech, hearing & language naturally falls under the domain of psychology I. Understanding Normal Development Psychology (especially Developmental Psychology) has wealth of information on normal child development Important psychological factors (development of perceptual, motor, cognitive, or socio-emotional function) involved in speech & language development are studied in great depth Knowledge of normal child development is necessary for speech & hearing specialists II. Psychological Testing Basis principles that underpin the concept of testing (construction, selection and interpretation of tests) Standardized information from tests is more scientific Applications of psychological tests and other assessment tools helps to measure and observe a client's behaviour to arrive at a diagnosis and guide treatment. A wide variety of domains & reasons  Intelligence, academic aptitude, and academic achievement, cognitive assessment, careers and life plans, personality assessment, interpersonal III. Diagnosis Many speech & language disorders are to be diagnosed & understood from a psychological perspective Speech and language disorders can accompany or result from any of the conditions that interfere with the development of perceptual, motor, cognitive, or socio-emotional function. Accordingly, conditions such as mental retardation, autism spectrum disorder, emotional and behavioural disorders, and perceptual disorders are known to increase the potential for speech and/or language disorders The association between mental and behavioural disorders and speech and hearing impairments  can be in FOUR overlapping pathways/clusters:  (1) mental and behavioural disorders with disturbances of speech and language as core symptoms (Expressive. Lang. Disorder)  (2) mental and behavioural disorders as etiological factors (Intellectual Disability, Autism Spectrum Disorder)  (3) mental and behavioural disorders as factors which affect the course of a disorder (HL+ID, Stuttering + Personality Disorder) IV. Treatment & Therapy Speech and language therapy follows a number of different approaches, but most typically employs behavioural approaches. Behavioural procedures (shaping, prompting and transfer of stimulus control, chaining, behavioural skills training procedures, reinforcement, extinction, and self-management procedures) are also used in speech therapy V. Understanding and Counseling caregivers Helping caregivers in distress can be one of the most ennobling human activities. Through research and the practice of counselling and psychotherapy psychologists have developed many different approaches to alleviate personal misery. Understand major theories of guidance and counselling, and the many ways they can be applied CONCEPT OF NORMALITY AND ABNORMALITY  CONCEPT OF NORMALITY AND ABNORMALITY 1. Normality as absence of illness Normality, according to this criteria is “not sick/ absence of mental disorders”(medical approach) 2. Normality as ideal Normality is a desirable or ideal state, which describes optimal rather than reasonable or average functioning. 3. Normality as average The average functioning/performance in the various psychological functions is considered as normal (Statistical approach: 2 standard deviation above or below mean) 4. Normality as social acceptance A behavior can be judged as normal only in terms of the social context within which it occur. Concept of abnormality the word ‘abnormal’ literally means “away from the normal”, it implies deviation from norms or standards No universally accepted definition TWO conflicting views on abnormality Abnormal behaviour as a deviation from social norms. (label that is given to a behaviour which is deviant from social expectations) Each society has norms A society’s norms may change over time Abnormal behaviour as maladaptive whether a behaviour fosters the well-being of the individual and eventually of the group to which s/he belongs and not whether society accepts it ‘four Ds’ of abnormality: deviance, (different, extreme, unusual, even bizarre), distress, (unpleasant and upsetting) dysfunction (interfering with the person’s ability to carry out daily activities in a constructive way) Danger (to the person or to others). Models of abnormal behaviour I. supernatural and magical forces ancient theory (though still prevailing) behaviour can be explained by the operation of supernatural and magical forces such as evil spirits or the devil Erwadi fire incident 6 August, 2001 Models of abnormal behaviour II. Biological /organic Model abnormal behaviour has a biochemical or physiological basis abnormal activity by certain neurotransmitters can lead to specific psychological disorders. Anxiety disorders (low GABA) schizophrenia (excess activity of dopamine) Depression (activity of serotonin) Genetic factors have been linked to schizophrenia, autism, manic depressive illness, major depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, panic disorder and other mental illnesses III. Psychological models psychological and interpersonal factors have a significant role to play in abnormal behaviour Psychodynamic model Behavioural model Cognitive model Humanistic-existential model Psychodynamic model behaviour, whether normal or abnormal, is determined by psychological forces within the person of which s/he is not consciously aware. These internal forces interact with one another and their interaction gives shape to behaviour, thoughts and emotions. Abnormal symptoms are viewed as the result of conflicts between these forces. first formulated by Sigmund Freud three central forces shape personality instinctual needs and drives (id), rational thinking (ego), moral standards (superego). abnormal behaviour is a symbolic expression of unconscious mental conflicts that can be generally traced to early childhood or infancy Behavioural model both normal and abnormal behaviours are learned and psychological disorders are the result of learning maladaptive ways of behaving concentrates on behaviours that are learned through conditioning and proposes that what has been learned can be unlearned. Cognitive model abnormal functioning can result from cognitive problems. People may hold assumptions and attitudes about themselves that are irrational and inaccurate. Humanistic-existential model Focuses on broader aspects of human existence a natural tendency to be friendly and constructive, and are driven to self- actualise(to fulfil this potential for goodness and growth) If we fail to fulfil this potential we live in empty and dysfunctional lives Socio cultural model abnormal behaviour is best understood in light of the social and cultural forces that influence an individual As behaviour is shaped by societal forces, factors such as family structure and communication, social networks, societal conditions, and societal labels and roles become more important Diathesis-stress model widely accepted psychological disorders develop when a diathesis (biological predisposition to the disorder) is set off by a stressful situation.