Unit 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology PDF

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Unit 1 Session outcomes By the end of the session students will be able to describe basic anatomical terms By the end of the session students will be able to use these terms to describe normal movement 15 September 2022...

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Unit 1 Session outcomes By the end of the session students will be able to describe basic anatomical terms By the end of the session students will be able to use these terms to describe normal movement 15 September 2022 2  Anatomy and Physiology? Anatomy: the word anatomy is derived from a Greek word “Anatome” meaning to cut up. It is the study of structures that make up the body and how those structures relate with each other. The study of anatomy includes many sub specialties. These are Gross anatomy, Microscopic anatomy, Developmental anatomy and Embryology. Gross anatomy studies body structure with out microscope. Systemic anatomy studies functional relationships of organs within a system whereas Regional anatomy studies body part regionally. Both systemic and regional approaches may be used to study gross anatomy Microscopic anatomy (Histology) requires the use of microscope to study tissues that form the various organs of the body. Physiology: the word physiology derived from a Greek word for study of nature. It is the study of how the body and its part work or function.  Level of structural organization of the body Hence,Anatomy and physiology are studied together to give a full appreciation and understanding of human body. Homeostasis When structure and function are coordinated the body achieves a relative stability of its internal environment called homeostasis / staying the same. Although the external environmental changes constantly, the internal environment of a healthy body remains the same with in normal limits. Under normal conditions, homeostasis is maintained by adaptive mechanisms ranging from control center in the brain to chemical substances called hormones that are secreted by various organs directly into the blood streams. Some of the functions controlled by homeostasis mechanisms are blood pressure, body temperature, breathing and heart rate. Thehuman body has different structural levels of organization, starting with atoms molecules and compounds and increasing in size and complexity to cells, tissues, organs and the systems that make up the complete organism.  Figure: 1.1 Levels of structural organization of the body (source: Elaine n. MARIEB, (2000), Essentials of human anatomy and physiology, Addison welsey longman inc., San Francisco, 6 ed) th Atoms molecules and compounds: - At its simplest level, the body is composed of atoms. The most common elements in living organism are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus and sulfur. Atoms → Molecule → Compounds. Cell: The smallest independent units of life. All life depends on the many chemical activities of cells. Some of the basic functions of cell are: growth, metabolism, irritability and reproduction. Tissue: tissue is made up of many similar cells that perform a specific function. The various tissues of the body are divided in to four groups. These are epithelial, connective, nervous and muscle tissue.  Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of organs, blood and lymph vessels and body cavities. Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of the body. They constitute most part of skin, bone and tendons. Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to contract. This constitutes skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It responds to various types of stimuli and transmits nerve impulses. Organ: - Is an integrated collection of two or more kinds of tissue that works together to perform specific function. For example: Stomach is made of all type of tissues System: Is a group of organs that work together to perform major function. For example: Respiratory system contains several organs. Organism level: - The various organs of the body form the entire organism. Anatomical Terminologies: 1. Anatomical Position. Anatomical positions are universally accepted as the starting points for positional references to the body. In anatomical position the subject is standing erect and facing the observer, the feet are together, and the arms are hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward. Relative Directional terms Standardized terms of reference are used when anatomists describe the location of the body part. Relative means the location of one part of the body is always described in relation to another part of the body. Figure 1.2 Relative directional terms of the body. (Source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992), Human anatomy and physiology, Mc Graw hill inc, New York, 2nd ed, pp 15)  Term Definition and example Superior (cranial) Toward the head. The leg is supper to the foot. Toward the Inferior (caudal) feet. The foot is inferior to the leg. Toward the front part of Anterior (ventral) the body. The nose is anterior to the ears. Posterior (dorsal)Towards the back of the body. The ears are posterior to the nose. Medial Towards the midline of the body. The nose is medial Lateral to the eyes. Away from the midline of the body. The eyes are lateral to the Proximal nose. Toward (nearer) the trunk of the body or the attached end of a Distal limb. The shoulder is proximal to the wrist. Away (farther) from the trunk of the body or the attached end of a limb. The wrist is Superficial distal to the forearm. Deep Nearer the surface of the body. The ribs are superficial to the heart. Peripheral Farther from the surface of the body. The heart is deeper to the ribs. Away from the central axis of the body. Peripheral nerves radiate away from the brain and spinal cord. Human Anatomy and Physiology Table: 1.1 Directional terms (source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992), Human anatomy and physiology, Mc Graw hill inc, New York, 2nd ed, pp 15) 9 Body parts Regions The body can generally be described to have areas of: Axial body part: - It is the part of the body near the axis of the body. This includes head, neck, thorax (chest), abdomen, and pelvis. Appendicular body part: - It is the part of the body out of the axis line. This includes the upper and lower extremities. It is customary to subdivide the abdominal area into nine regions or more easily in to four quadrants. Figure 1.3 Abdominal sub divisions (Source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992), Human anatomy and physiology, Mc Graw hill inc, New York, 2nd ed, pp 17)  Body Cavities The cavities of the body house the internal organs, which commonly referred to as the viscera. The two main body cavities are the larger ventral (anterior) and the smaller, dorsal (posterior) body cavity. The ventral body cavity constitutes the thoracic cavity and the abdomino-pelvic body cavity. The Thoracic cavity houses lung and heart. It is protected by the rib cage & associated musculature and the sternum anteriorly. It consists of the right and left pleural cavities and mediastinum (the portion of tissues and organs that separates the left and right lung). Abdomino-pelvic Cavity extends from the diaphragm inferior to the floor of the pelvis. It is divided into superior abdominal and inferior pelvic cavity by imaginary line passing at upper pelvis. Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, intestine, liver, spleen and gallbladder. The pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder, rectum, and portions of the reproductive organs.  Figure: 1.5 Body cavities (Source: Memmler, Ruth Lundeen, Barbara Jansen Cohen and Dena Lin Wood (1996), The Human Body in Health and Disease, 8 Ed, pp 9). th Human Anatomy and Physiology The dorsal body cavity: it constitutes the cephalic cavity containing brain and the vertebral canal containing the spinal cord.  Anatomical position Standing Feet parallel Facing Forwards Arms by side Palms facing forwards 15 September 2022 15  Planes Coronal plane (frontal) Transverse plane (horizontal) Sagittal plane 15 September 2022 16  Sagittal plane Divides the body into right and left halves Movement of a body part FORWARDS is generally called FLEXION Movement of a body part BACKWARDS is generally called EXTENSION 17  Coronal (frontal) plane Divides the body into front and back parts Movement of a body part away from the mid-line is generally called ABDUCTION Movement of a body part towards the mid-line is generally called ADDUCTION https://youtu.be/qcxE9uql8g4 15 September 2022 18  Transverse (horizontal) plane Divides the body into upper and lower parts Rotation of a body part outwards is generally called LATERAL (external) ROTATION Rotation of a body part inwards is generally called MEDIAL (internal) ROTATION https://youtu.be/CNXZI34eUKY 15 September 2022 19  Body planes and sections Body planes are imaginary surfaces or planes lines that divide the body in to sections. This helps for further identification of specific areas. Sagittal plane: -divides the body into right and left half. -Mid sagittal plane: - divides body into equal left and right halves. -Para sagittal plane: - divides body into unequal left and right Frontal plane: - divides the body into asymmetrical antererior and posterior sections. Transverse plane: - divides the body into upper and lower body section. Oblique plane: - divides the body obliquely into upper and lower section. Figure 1.4 Body planes (Source: Carola, R., Harley,J.P., Noback R.C., (1992), Human anatomy and physiology, Mc Graw hill inc, New York, 2 ed, nd pp18)  Axis Coronal plane moves around a sagittal axis Transverse plane moves around a vertical axis Sagittal plane moves around a coronal axis 15 September 2022 22  Anterior and posterior Anterior – towards the front / in front Posterior – towards the back / behind 15 September 2022 23  Medial and lateral Medial – closer to the midline Lateral – further away from the midline 15 September 2022 24  Superior and inferior Superior – Above / on top of Inferior – Below / underneath 15 September 2022 25  Proximal and distal Proximal – nearer to the trunk Distal – further from the trunk 15 September 2022 26  Superficial and deep Superficial – closer to the surface Deep – further from the surface 15 September 2022 27 Bones Function of bone Protection Mobility Stability Leverage Nutrition 15 September 2022 28  Bones 5 main types of bone: Long Short Flat Sesamoid Irregular 15 September 2022 29 Sesamoid bone 15 September 2022 30 Long Bone 15 September 2022 31 Irregular bone 15 September 2022 32 Short bone 15 September 2022 33 Flat bone 15 September 2022 34  Joints Areas where bones are linked together Some joints are linked by fibrous or cartilaginous tissue and allow little movement Most joints in the body are SYNOVIAL JOINTS and are freely moveable 15 September 2022 35  Joints (3 types) Synovial 1.Gomphosis: Cartilaginous A type of fibrous joint where a conical peg fits into a socket. The classic example is the connection between teeth and their sockets in the jaw. It allows very little movement. - Primary Suture: - Secondary A type of fibrous joint found only in the skull. In sutures, the bones are tightly bound together by a layer of connective tissue, allowing for minimal movement. They help protect the brain Fibrous and allow for growth during childhood. - Gomphosis - Suture Syndesmosis: - Syndesmosis A fibrous joint where bones are connected by a ligament or an interosseous membrane, allowing for slight movement. An example is the joint between the tibia and fibula in the lower leg. 15 September 2022 36  Features of a synovial joint Fibrous capsule Articular cartilage Synovial cavity and fluid Synovial membrane 15 September 2022 37 Synovial joint types Ball and socket Hinge Pivot Saddle Ellipsoid/condylar Gliding/plane 15 September 2022 38  What are these? Ligaments Connect bones Collagen Provide stability 15 September 2022 39 Muscle http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/muscular/structure.html ▪ Composed of bundles of individual fibres. ▪ Muscles which attach to bones are called skeletal muscles. 15 September 2022 40 Muscle Muscle can attach directly to bone or via a tendon The shape and arrangement of the muscle will effect its function 15 September 2022 41  Summary A joint is where 2 or more bones meet and is usually where movement occurs Synovial joints contain synovial fluid and the joint surfaces are lined by hyaline cartilage Bones are held together at joints by ligaments Movement of bones at a joint is produced by the contraction of muscles 15 September 2022 42  Session outcomes By the end of the session students will be able to describe basic anatomical terms By the end of the session students will be able to use these terms to describe normal movement 15 September 2022 43  Quiz With a partner stand in the anatomical position 1.Point to which of these is most proximal – shoulder, elbow, wrist? 2.Which is most distal – hip, knee, foot? 3.Point to the medial side of the arm 4.Point to the lateral aspect of the leg 15 September 2022 44  Quiz 5. Point to the anterior aspect of the trunk 6. Which of these is most superficial – skin, fat, muscle? 7. Perform a movement in the sagittal plane 8. Perform a movement in the frontal plane 9. Name the 3 main types of joint 15 September 2022 45