Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science PDF

Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science Chapter 1 Introduction Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Educ...

Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science Chapter 1 Introduction Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Definition (1 of 2) In its broadest definition, forensic science is the application of science to criminal and civil laws. The subject matter of this book emphasizes the application of science to those criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1–1: A Scene from CSI, a Forensic Science Television Show Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Definition (2 of 2) Forensic science owes its origins to individuals such as Orfila, Bertillon, Galton, Lattes, Goddard, Osborn, and Locard, who developed the principles and techniques needed to identify or compare physical evidence. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved  Creating a Historical Timeline THE ASSIGNMENT: FORENSIC SCIENCE HISTORIC TIMELINE PROJECT- Students in groups of 3 will create a timeline on poster paper. Your timeline must include a minimum of 10 historic events. The events you choose should have some significance to the course we are studying here today. As a group you should be able to explain the event and its significance. CONTENT/FACTS THAT MUST BE INCLUDED Approximate year of contribution (you might get conflicting dates online, but check with me to see if you are on the right track) Leading person, persons, or other What country and or city/state What was the contribution to forensic science? How did it change the course of forensic history? Details of the contribution for presentation, does not have to be present on the poster. For example, if the contribution was toxicology, you would Explain what toxicology is Briefly tell about a case study in which toxicology was used to solve Summarize how the discovery was made. Include interesting facts to help us all remember this contribution GRAPHICS/MEDIA Include 3 different graphics that connect contribution, person(s), and country contribution was made Construct or bring in an item/product that represents the discovery. Ex) If the contribution was made in entomology, you could bring in a plastic, fake bug or a real one! ARRANGEMENT OF THE INFORMATION SHOULD FOLLOW THESE GUIDELINES: YEAR at the top Person or People underneath the year Contribution underneath that Pictures/visual aids wherever you like Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved History (1 of 5) Mathieu Orfila – The father of forensic toxicology. Alphonse Bertillion – Devised the first scientific system of personal identification in 1879. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1–3: Bertillon’s System of Bodily Measurements as Used for the Identification of an Individual Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved History (2 of 5) Francis Galton – Conducted the first definitive study of fingerprints and their classification. Leone Lattes – Developed a procedure to determine blood type from dried bloodstains. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved History (3 of 5) Calvin Goddard – Refined the technique of determining if a particular gun fired a bullet by using the comparison microscope. Albert Osborn – Developed the fundamental principles of document examination. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved History (4 of 5) Walter McCrone – Advanced the field of microscopy and its application to examining evidence. Hans Gross – Wrote the first treatise describing the application of scientific principles to the field of criminal investigation. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved History (5 of 5) Edmond Locard – Incorporated Gross’ principles within a workable crime laboratory. Locard’s Exchange Principle – States that when a person comes in contact with an object or another person, a cross-transfer of materials occurs. – Every contact leaves a trace. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Crime Lab (1 of 2) The ever increasing number of crime laboratories is partly the result of the following: – Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s responsible for police placing greater emphasis on securing scientifically evaluated evidence. – Crime laboratories inundated with drug specimens due to accelerated drug abuse. – The advent of DNA profiling. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Crime Lab (2 of 2) At present, approximately 411 public crime laboratories operate at various levels of government—federal, state, county, and municipal. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Crime Laboratory Units (1 of 6) The technical support provided by crime laboratories can be assigned to five basic services: – The physical science unit incorporates the principles of chemistry, physics, and geology to identify and compare physical evidence. – This may include the analysis of drugs, glass, paint, explosives, and soil. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Crime Laboratory Units (2 of 6) – The biology unit applies the knowledge of biological sciences in order to investigate biological fluids or touch samples for DNA, as well as compare hair and fiber samples. – The firearms unit investigates discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, and ammunition. Tool mark comparisons may also be made in this unit. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Crime Laboratory Units (3 of 6) – The document examination unit provides the skills needed for handwriting analysis and other questioned-document issues such as obliterations, erasures, and burnt documents. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Crime Laboratory Units (4 of 6) – The photography unit applies specialized photographic techniques for recording and examining physical evidence. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Crime Laboratory Units (5 of 6) Optional Services by Full-Service Labs – The toxicology unit examines body fluids and organs for the presence of drugs and poisons. – The latent fingerprint unit processes and examines evidence for latent fingerprints. – The polygraph unit conducts polygraph tests. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Crime Laboratory Units (6 of 6) – The voiceprint analysis unit attempts to link a recorded voice to a particular suspect. – The crime-scene investigation unit dispatches specially trained personnel to the crime scene to collect and preserve physical evidence. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Functions of a Forensic Scientist (1 of 3) A forensic scientist must be skilled in applying the principles and techniques of the physical and natural sciences to analyze the many types of evidence that may be recovered during a criminal investigation. The analysis of physical evidence requires that the techniques used first be tested using the scientific method. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Analyzing Physical Evidence Requires Utilizing the Scientific Method Scientific Method – Formulate a question worthy of investigation. – Formulate a reasonable hypothesis to answer the question. – Test the hypothesis through experimentation. – Upon validation of the hypothesis, it becomes suitable as scientific evidence. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Functions of a Forensic Scientist (2 of 3) A forensic scientist may also provide expert court testimony. An expert witness is an individual whom the court determines possesses knowledge relevant to the trial that is not expected of the average person. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Functions of a Forensic Scientist (3 of 3) The expert witness is called on to evaluate evidence based on specialized training and experience that the court lacks the expertise to do. The expert will then express an opinion as to the significance of the findings. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Evidence Admissibility: The Frye Standard The Frye v. United States decision set guidelines for determining the admissibility of scientific evidence into the courtroom. To meet the Frye standard, the evidence in question must be “generally accepted” by the scientific community. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Frye Not Absolute (1 of 2) However, in the 1993 case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical, Inc., the U.S. Supreme Court asserted that the Frye standard is not an absolute prerequisite to the admissibility of scientific evidence. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Frye Not Absolute (2 of 2) Trial judges were said to be ultimately responsible as “gatekeepers” for the admissibility and validity of scientific evidence presented in their courts, as well as all expert testimony. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Evidence Admissibility: The Daubert Criteria (1 of 2) In Daubert, the Supreme Court offered some guidelines as to how a judge can gauge the reliability of scientific evidence: – Whether the scientific technique or theory can be (and has been) tested – Whether the technique or theory has been subject to peer review and publication – The technique’s potential rate of error Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Daubert Criteria (2 of 2) – Existence and maintenance of standards controlling the technique’s operation – Whether the scientific theory or method has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific community Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Other Landmark Cases – Kumho Tire Co., Ltd v. Carmichael determined that the judge acts as a “gatekeeper” not only for scientific testimony, but any expert testimony. – Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts determined that an expert witness must appear in person to provide testimony in court so that the defense has an opportunity to cross-examine the witness. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Evidence Collection Training Many crime laboratories have “evidence technicians,” trained by the crime lab staff, on 24-hour call for evidence collection at crime scenes. Training ensures all pertinent evidence will be recognized and collected properly. Where no formal training exists, familiarity can be gained through lectures, tours of the lab, and evidence collection manuals. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Special Forensic Science Services (1 of 3) A number of special forensic science services are available to the law enforcement community to augment the services of the crime laboratory: – Forensic psychiatry – Forensic odontology – Forensic engineering – Forensic computer and digital analysis Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Special Forensic Science Services (2 of 3) Forensic psychiatry is an area in which the relationship between human behavior and legal proceedings is examined. Forensic odontology involves using teeth to provide information about the identification of victims when a body is left in an unrecognizable state; also investigates bite marks, though this has become a controversial method of analysis. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Special Forensic Science Services (3 of 3) Forensic engineering is concerned with failure analysis, accident reconstruction, and causes and origins of fires or explosions. Forensic computer and digital analysis involves the identification, collection, preservation, and examination of digital evidence. Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright Criminalistics, 13e Saferstein/Roy Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved