Understanding Self and Others Notes PDF

UNDERSTANDING SELF AND OTHERS –TOPIC 2 Nervous system is our bodies’ command centre (in the brain); controls our movements, thoughts & automatic responses to the world around us. Neurons = cells of the nervous system that receive information & transmit it to other cells by conducting electr...

UNDERSTANDING SELF AND OTHERS –TOPIC 2 Nervous system is our bodies’ command centre (in the brain); controls our movements, thoughts & automatic responses to the world around us. Neurons = cells of the nervous system that receive information & transmit it to other cells by conducting electrochemical impulses. Nervous System Cells Cell body – contains the nucleus* of the cell. Dendrites – the widely branching structures that receive input from other neurons. Axon – a single, long, thin, straight fibre with branches near its tip. Myelin – an insulating sheath covering the axon that speeds up the transmission of impulses along an axon. Axon transmits information (sends messages) to other cells; dendrite receives that information (receives messages) from other neurons.  ACTION POTENTIAL ❑ When neurons transmit signals through the body, the transmission process involves an electrical impulse called action potential. ❑ Function of an axon – convey information over long distances; e.g. from skin to spinal cord, from spinal cord to muscle. ❑ Axons convey information by a process called an action potential, ❑ Action potential = an excitation that travels along an axon at a constant strength (no matter how far it travels). ❑ Action potentials are like nerve signals; neurons generate & conduct these signals in order to transmit them to the target tissues. ❑ Example: you want to pick up a glass to drink water 🡪🡪 action potential carries that message from the brain 🡪🡪 hand. How Action Potential Works? ❑ Neuron firing takes place as a communication between neurons. I. Prior to Action Potential ❑ When a neuron isn’t sending signals, the neuron’s: ▪ Inside = negatively charged ▪ Outside = positively charged ❑ The membrane has a resting potential – an electrical polarization across the membrane of an axon. ❑ A mechanism called the sodium-potassium pump: 🡪🡪 Pushes sodium ions out of the axon. 🡨🡨 Pulls potassium ions in. ❑ Consequently, sodium ions = more concentrated outside the axon; potassium ions are more concentrated inside. II. During Action Potential ❑ During an action potential: ▪ Sodium gates on axon’s membrane open. ▪ Sodium ions enter axon (carrying a positive charge). ❑ Like how magnet works, sodium ions (highly concentrated outside the membrane) rush into the cell, attracted by negative charge inside. ❑ Influx (flooding) of positively charged sodium ions = action potential. ❑ Positive charge enters axon at one point 🡪🡪 stimulates next point along the axon 🡪🡪 starts opening sodium gates 🡪🡪 repeating the process. III. After Action Potential ❑ After sodium gates have been open for few milliseconds 🡪🡪 snap shut. ❑ As sodium gates close 🡪🡪 potassium gates open 🡪🡪 potassium ions flow out of the axon. ❑ Reasons: ▪ Inside of cell is positively charged (because of sodium ions) 🡪🡪 no longer attracts potassium ions (positive charge). ▪ Potassium ions are more concentrated inside the cell 🡪🡪 flow out of the cell, carrying positive charges with them. ❑ Exit of potassium ions 🡪🡪 inside of the axon back to its resting potential. Highlights of Action Potential ❑ Sodium ions enter the cell (excitation); potassium ions leave (return to the resting potential). Synapse ❑ Neuron communicates with one another by releasing a chemical called a neurotransmitter at a specialized junction called a synapse. ❑ Synapse = the point of contact between neurons where information is passed from one neuron to the next. ❑ Neurotransmitter = chemical that activates receptors on other neurons. ❑ Synapse is a junction of a presynaptic (message-sending) cell and a postsynaptic (message- receiving) cell. ❑ Neurotransmitter can either excite/inhibit the next neuron. How Neurons Communicate? 1. Action potential travels down the axon 🡪🡪 synapse. 2. At the synapse, neurotransmitter is released. 3. Neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft 🡪🡪 binds to the receptors on the surface of the postsynaptic cell (usually on the dendrites). 4. If binding of neurotransmitter to the receptor cell opens gates for positively charged sodium ions to enter 🡪🡪 cell will produce more action potential (called excitatory synapse). 5. If binding of neurotransmitter to the receptor cell opens gates for positively charged potassium ions to leave 🡪🡪 cell will produce fewer action potential (called inhibitory synapse).  Types of Neurotransmitters Dopamine 1.Dopamine controls movement, memory, and thinking. 2.Antipsychotic drugs reduce dopamine activity, while L-dopa increases it to treat Parkinson's d Serotonin (Good mood chemical) 1.Serotonin influences motivated and emotional behaviors. 2.Most antidepressant drugs increase serotonin activity by prolonging its effects at synapses. Norepinephrine 1.Dopamine controls movement, memory, and thinking. 2.Antipsychotic drugs reduce dopamine activity, while L-dopa increases it to treat Parkinson's disease. Histamine Increases arousal and alertness. Antihistamines (for allergies) block histamine and therefore lead to drowsiness. Endorphins(Pain reliever chemical) Decrease pain and increase pleasure. Morphine and heroin stimulate the same receptors as endorphins. Brain & Behaviour 1.You Use All of Your Brain 2. Concept of Monism ❑ Monism = idea that mental activity & brain activity are inseparable. ❑ You can’t have mental activity without brain activity. ❑ Concept of monism – believes that mental activity = brain activity Nervous System ❑The major components of the nervous system are the: i. Central nervous system ii. Peripheral nervous system ❑Central nervous system (CNS) = consists of the brain + spinal cord. ❑Peripheral nervous system (PNS) = consists of nerves connecting the spinal cord with the rest of the body. ❑CNS communicates with the rest of the body by the PNS. Occipital Lobe ❑Occipital lobe = area of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the head. ❑Functions: Contains the primary visual cortex, which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information. Receives sensory information from retinas of the eyes 🡪🡪 encoded into visual data (e.g. colour, orientation, motion). Temporal Lobe ❑Temporal lobe = cortical area located toward the left & right sides of the head. ❑Function Largely responsible for hearing & certain aspects of vision. Frontal Lobe ❑Frontal lobe = the anterior (forward) pole of the brain, which includes the primary motor cortex. ❑Function: Associated typically with ‘higher’ cognitive functions, including decision-making, problem-solving, thought & attention. ❑Primary motor cortex = brain area important for controlling fine movements (e.g. moving a finger, wiggling a toe) ❑Each area of primary motor cortex controls a different part of the body; larger part controls areas involving precision (e.g. tongue, fingers). ❑Prefrontal cortex Anterior (forward) sections of frontal lobe; Responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; Important for memory of what has just happened & what we plan to do next; Critical for directing attention; Participates heavily in decision making. ❑2 frontal lobes; each lobe controls the operations on opposite sides of the body: Left frontal lobe – most dominant lobe; works predominantly with language, logical thinking & analytical reasoning. Right frontal lobe – most associated with non-verbal abilities, creativity, imagination, musical & art skills. 2 Hemispheres & Their Connections ❑Left hemisphere – specialized for language. ❑Right hemisphere – important for understanding spatial relationships & for interpreting emotional expressions. ❑Corpus callosum = a large set of nerve fibers that connect the left & right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. ❑Corpus callosum allows: Both hemispheres to convey information + communicate with each other. For information being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the other side. ❑Hence, if the corpus callosum is damaged, both hemispheres can’t share information with one another. Measuring Brain Activity ❑Electroencephalograph (EEG) = Device that measures & amplifies tiny electrical changes on the scalp that reflect brain activity. ❑Magnetoencephalograph (MEG) = Also for measuring brain activity; this device records magnetic changes. ❑Positron-emission tomography (PET) = device that records radioactivity of various brain areas emitted from injected chemicals. ❑Red shows areas of most increased activity during some task; yellow shows areas of next most increased activity. ❑Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) = procedure that uses magnetic detectors outside the head to compare the amounts of hemoglobin (protein inside red blood cells) with & without oxygen in different brain areas. Subcortical Areas Thalamus ❑Heavily involved in relaying (transmit) information between cortex & brain stem. Limbic System ❑Consists of a number of structures: Amygdala – process of emotions & memories associated with fear. Hippocampus – important for memory. Hypothalamus Hypothalamus ❑Located just below thalamus; ❑Important for hunger, thirst, temperature regulation, sex, & other motivated behaviors. Spinal Cord ❑Structure that controls the muscles from the neck down. ❑Controls many reflexes, such as the knee-jerk reflex. ❑Reflex = rapid, automatic response to a stimulus; e.g. quickly jerking your hand away from something hot. Cerebellum ❑Part of the hindbrain; primarily involved in coordinating movement & balance. ❑Also plays a role in cognitive functions (e.g. language & attention). Autonomic Nervous System ❑Autonomic nervous system = section of the nervous system that controls the organs; closely associated with spinal cord, controls the heart, digestive system & other organs. ❑2 parts of autonomic nervous systems: i.Sympathetic nervous system – activates the fight/flight response during a threat/perceived danger. i.Parasympathetic nervous system – restores the body to a state of calm. Autonomic Nervous System Endocrine System ❑Made up of several organs called glands. ❑These glands (located all over the body) create & secrete (release) hormones. ❑Hormones = chemicals that coordinate different functions in the body by carrying messages through blood 🡪🡪 organs, skin, muscles & other tissues. ❑These signals tell the body what to do & when to do it. Genetic Principles ❑Except for red blood cells, all cells contain a nucleus that includes strands of hereditary material called chromosomes. ❑Chromosomes = threadlike structures made of protein & a single molecule of DNA which carry genomic information. ❑Gene = inherited structures that control the chemical reactions that direct development. ❑Example: Gene influence height, hair color. How Genes Affect Behaviour ❑Genes 🡪🡪 affect behaviors by altering the chemistry of the brain. The Multiplier Effect ❑Multiplier Effect = a small initial advantage in some behaviour, possibly genetic in origin, alters the environment & magnifies that advantage.  TOPIC 3- SENSATION 1.Sensation: Conversion of energy into nervous system signals Example: light rays striking your eyes produce sensation. 2.Perception: Interpretation of those signals Example: your experience of recognizing your roommate is a perception. Detecting Light  Sensation is the detection of stimuli.  Stimuli = energies from the world around us that affect us in some way.  Our eyes, ears, & other sensory organs are packed with receptors.  Receptors = specialized cells that convert environmental energies into signals for the nervous system. Structures of the Eye Pupil = an adjustable opening that widens & narrows to control the amount of light entering the eye. Iris = coloured structure on the surface of the eye surrounding the pupil (what we describe when we say someone has brown, green, or blue eyes). Retina = a layer of visual receptors covering the back surface of the eyeball. o Cornea + lens focus the light on the retina; cornea refracts the incoming light to focus on the lens. Cornea = rigid transparent structure on the surface of the eyeball. Lens = flexible structure that varies its thickness. o Lens adjusts in thickness  enable us to focus for objects at different distances; example: Focus on distant object  eye muscles relax; lens become thinner & flatter. Focus on close object  eye muscles tighten; lens become thicker & rounder. o Fovea = central area of the human retina; adapted for detailed vision. o Of all retinal areas, fovea has the greatest density of receptors. o More of the cerebral cortex is devoted to analyzing input from the fovea > input from other areas. Visual Receptors  Retina has 2 types of visual receptors:  Cones  Rods  Cones = visual receptors adapted for colour vision, daytime vision & detailed vision in bright light.  Rods = visual receptors that are adapted for vision in dim light.  5% of visual receptors in the human retina are cones. Dark Adaptation  Dark adaptation = gradual improvement in the ability to see in dim light.  Dark adaptation is made possible by dilation of our pupils & changes in the rods & cones of our retinas.  In darkness, rods kick into high gear; cones take a backseat. Trichromatic Theory  Young-Helmholtz Theory = colour vision depends on the relative rate of response of 3 types of cones.  Each type of cone is most sensitive to:  Short wavelengths (blue-sensing cones) – 10%  Medium wavelengths (green-sensing cones) – 30%  Long wavelengths (red-sensing cones) – 60%  Short-wavelength cones, which respond most strongly to blue, are the least numerous.  For retina to detect blueness, blue must extend over a somewhat larger area than other colors. Retinex Theory  Brightness Contrast = increase/decrease in an object’s apparent brightness by comparison to objects around it.  Example: The pink bars in the left area are in fact the same as the pink bars in the right area, but those on the left seem lighter.  Reason: pink looks darker on the right because you contrast the pink against the white background.  Colour Constancy = tendency of an object to appear nearly the same colour under a variety of lighting conditions. Hearing Sound waves = vibrations of air, water/other medium.  Stirrup transmits vibrations  cochlea. Within the cochlea contains hair cells; hair cells:  Translate vibrations  electrical impulse.  Are connected to neurons whose axons form the auditory nerve.  Gate Theory = idea that pain messages must pass through a gate, presumably in the spinal cord, that can block the messages. Ways to Decrease Pain o Endorphins = neurotransmitters that weaken pain sensations. o Endorphins block the release of a transmitter conveying pain sensations.  Rubbing capsaicin on skin produces a temporary burning sensation; as burning sensation subsides  skin loses some pain sensitivity.  High doses of capsaicin  build-up of calcium in heat receptors  damage the receptors  temporarily unresponsive Smell Olfaction = sense of smell. Gestalt Psychology Gestalt Psychology = a field that emphasizes perception of overall patterns. ‘Gestalt’ – originated from German word = pattern/configuration. Founders of Gestalt psychology, Max Wertheimer rejected the idea of breaking down a perception into its component parts. Feature detectors represent a bottom-up process: Bottom-up process = perceptual activity in which individual sensory elements combine to produce larger items. Perception also includes a top-down process: Top-down process = applying experience & expectations to interpret perceived items in context. In the picture, we might see only meaningless black & white patches for a while  suddenly we might see an animal. To perceive the animals, we separate figure & ground: Figure & ground = distinguishing an object from its background.  Reversible figures = stimulus that you can perceive in more than 1 way. The longer you look at a reversible figure, the more frequently you alternate between one perception & another. Examples: Proximity  Tendency to perceive objects that are close together as belonging to a group.  E.g. only thing differentiating the group on the left from those on the right is the proximity of the lines (our brain interprets the image on the right as 3 distinct groups). Similarity  Tendency to perceive similar as being a group.  E.g. The squares here are all equally spaced & the same size, but we automatically group them by colour, even though there’s no rhyme/logic to their placement. Continuation A filling in of the gaps. Closure Tendency to imagine the rest of an incomplete, familiar figure. Good Figure Tendency to perceive simple, symmetrical figures. Depth Perception Depth perception = perception of distance which enables us to experience the world in 3D. This perception depends on several factors: i.Retinal disparity = difference in apparent position of an object as seen by the left & right retinas (eyes). ii.Convergence = degree to which the eyes turn in to focus on a close object. Topic 4 DEVELOPMENT Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) = condition marked by physical deformities/mental impairments caused by alcohol consumed by a mother during pregnancy.  Reason:  Alcohol interferes with the brain’s main excitatory neurotransmitter by facilitating the main inhibitory neurotransmitter (GABA)  decreases neurons’ arousal + makes many of them self-destruct. INFANTS HEARING Dishabituation = when a change in a stimulus (sound) increases a previously habituated response (in this case, the infant’s sucking rate).  Jean Piaget’s View of Cognitive Development  Piaget proposed 3 terms: i. Schema ii. Assimilation iii. Accommodation Schema  Organized way of interacting with objects. Example: grasping schema – action of grasping objects. Assimilation Applying a schema to new objects/problems. Example: infant learning that the grasping schema works well on blocks, toy cars, other small objects etc. Accommodation  Modifying an old schema to fit a new object/problem.  Example: infant learns that some objects can only be lifted with 2 hands  modify grasping scheme so that it works for new objects.  children progress through 4 major stages of cognitive development. i. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – age 2)  According to Piaget, infants respond only to what they see & hear at the moment.  Children during this period fail to respond to objects they remember seeing even a few seconds ago.  Object permanence = idea that objects continue to exist even when we don’t see/hear them ii. Preoperational Stage (Age 2 – 7)  At this stage, a child lacks the reversible mental processes.  3 typical aspects of preoperational stage:  Egocentrism  Appearance as reality  Lack of the concept of conservation  Egocentrism = seeing the world as centered around oneself, with difficulty taking another person’s perspective.  Preoperational stage children don’t understand that other people differ in their ideas, convictions & emotions.  Conclusion: child sees everything from his/her own point of view; believes all the world think like him/her.  A child at this stage have difficulty distinguishing appearance from reality.  A child believe that an object’s appearance tells what the object is really like.  Conservation = concept that objects conserve such properties as number, length, volume, area & mass after changes in the shape/arrangement of the objects. 3. Concrete-Operational Stage (Age 7 – 11)  A child at this stage begin to understands conservation of mass, number & volume; can reason logically with regard to concrete objects that can be seen/touched.  However, a child still has trouble reasoning about abstract concepts & hypothetical situations. Differing Views: Piaget & Vygotsky Zone of proximal development = difference between what a child can do with assistance & what he/she can do alone.  Erikson’s 8 Psychosocial Stages 1. Trust Vs. Mistrust (Infancy)  Involves developing a sense that the world is safe, a “good place”.  Responsive caregivers:  Provide warmth, touching, love & care.  Meet infants’ physical & emotional needs.  Infant will develop sense of trust  grow up seeing the world as a safe, predictable place.  Unresponsive caregivers:  Provide inadequate, unpredictable care, cold, indifferent, rejecting.  Doesn’t meet infants’ need.  Infant will see the world as unpredictable  likely to grow up with attitude of mistrust toward the world, especially toward interpersonal relationships.  2. Autonomy Vs. Shame & Doubt (Ages 1 – 3)  Involves realizing that one is independent in making decisions.  At this stage, toddlers begin exploring their world & learn that they can control their actions.  Basic struggle here is between a sense of self-reliance and a sense of self-doubt.  Child needs to explore & experiment, to make mistakes & to test limits.  If toddlers are encouraged to expressed growing self-control by climbing, touching, exploring  develop a sense of autonomy.  If toddlers are ridiculed & overprotected by parents  begin to doubt own abilities  low self-esteem & feeling of shame. 2. Autonomy Vs. Shame & Doubt (Ages 1 – 3)  Involves realizing that one is independent in making decisions.  At this stage, toddlers begin exploring their world & learn that they can control their actions.  Basic struggle here is between a sense of self-reliance and a sense of self-doubt.  If toddlers are encouraged to expressed growing self-control by climbing, touching, exploring  develop a sense of autonomy.  If toddlers are ridiculed & overprotected by parents  begin to doubt own abilities  low self-esteem & feeling of shame. Initiative Vs. Guilt (Ages 3 – 6) Involves developing the ability to try new things & to handle failure; basic task is to achieve a sense of competence & initiative. Give freedom to play, explore, ask questions, use imagination, choose activities, interact with others  mastery of initiative, develop self- confidence & feel a sense of purpose. Not allowed to make own decisions, criticized severely, discouraged from asking questions, restrain by over-controlling parents  feelings of guilt for taking initiative; refrain from taking active stance & allow others to choose for them. 4. Industry Vs. Inferiority (Ages 6 – 12)  Involves learning basic skills & to work with others; children also begin to compare themselves with their peers.  Child needs to expand understanding of world, continue to develop appropriate gender-role identity & learn skills needed for school success.  If adults praised child for productive activities  child experiences sense of industry, sense of pride & accomplishment.  If adults regard child’s things as messy, childish & inadequate  child experiences sense of inferiority.  If children don’t get along with others/have negative experiences at home/with peers  inferiority complex might develop into adolescence & adulthood. 5. Identity Vs. Role Confusion (Early teens)  A time of transition between childhood & adulthood; involves seeking clarification of self-identity, life goals & meaning;  Success at this stage  sense of identity (building up one’s identity through talents, values, life history & relationship).  If adolescents don’t make conscious search for identity/persuaded to conform to what others expect out of them  weak sense of self & experience role confusion (failure to develop sense of identity). 6. Intimacy Vs. Isolation (Late teens & early 20s)  Ability to care & to share experience with others  sense of intimacy.  If other stages haven’t been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing & maintaining successful relationships with others  sense of isolation & alienation (feeling alone, uncared for in life). 7. Generativity Vs. Stagnation (Middle age)  Involves contributing to younger people through child rearing, child care/other productive work.  There’s a need to go beyond the self & be involved in helping the next generation.  If adults can contribute to the next generation by engaging in meaningful & productive work  generativity; develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture, feeling of usefulness & accomplishment.  If adults don’t master this task  stagnation; feel unproductive, disconnected or uninvolved with community & society as a whole. 8. Integrity Vs. Despair (Later life)  Involves viewing one’s life as satisfactory & worth living.  Older adults who feel proud of their accomplishment:  Sense of integrity;  Older adults unsuccessful at this stage:  Sense of despair;  Feeling regret, a sense of failure, hopelessness, guilt, resentment;. Infancy & Childhood Strange Situation Test Strange Situation = standardized procedure to observe attachment security in children within the context of caregiver relationships.  Gender Influences  Males & females differ biologically in ways that influence behaviour:  Difference in brain areas between men & women.  Difference in genes activity between male & female brains.  Examples of some behavioural differences (on average):  Boys = more active; girls = better self-control.  Females = better at recognizing faces & detecting emotional signals.  Men = less accurate at recognizing emotional expressions.  Giving directions: men = more likely to use directions & distances (e.g. “go four blocks east…”); women = more likely to use landmarks (e.g. “go until you see the library…”).  Women apologize more > men do*. Effects of Parenting Styles  Topic 5 learning Additional Phenomena of Classical Conditioning Extinction Process that weakens a conditioned response by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Operant Conditioning Reinforcers Types of Reinforcements Positive Reinforcement Addition of something of value to individual as a consequence of certain behaviour (i.e. praise, attention, money, food). Negative Reinforcement Escape from/avoidance of aversive (unpleasant) stimuli. Punishment Punishment = event that decreases the probability of a response/behaviour. Reinforcement  increases target behaviour; punishment  decreases target behaviour. Punishment Is an aversive control whereby consequences of a certain behaviour result in a decrease of that behaviour. Can be either a presentation of something (e.g. receiving pain) or a removal of something (e.g. withholding food). Types of Punishment Positive punishment Added after behaviour to decrease frequency of the behaviour. Examples: getting a traffic summon for speeding; child who didn’t do homework being forced to stand outside the class. Negative punishment Reinforcing stimulus is removed following the behaviour to decrease frequency of the behaviour. Examples: no phone until a child clean his room; grounded from going out with friends. Extinction In classical conditioning, extinction is achieved by presenting the CS without the UCS. However, in operant conditioning, the procedure is response without reinforcement. Stimulus Generalization Stimulus generalization = tendency to respond to new stimulus in a way similar to the response to originally reinforced stimulus. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement = procedure providing reinforcement for every correct response. Intermittent reinforcement = procedure of reinforcing some responses & not others. Schedules of reinforcement = rules for delivery of reinforcement. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Fixed-ratio Schedule = rule that provides reinforcement only after a certain (fixed) number of correct responses. E.g. For every 5 visits & spending of RM10 at a café  get a discount voucher worth RM 5. Variable-ratio Schedule = procedure in which reinforcement occurs after a variable number of correct responses. E.g. If you enter a lottery, each time you enter you have some chance of winning, but you can’t predict how many times you must enter before winning Fixed-interval Schedule = procedure that provides reinforcement for the first response after a specific time interval. E.g. An animal might get food for its first response after a 15-second interval. Then it would have to wait another 15 seconds before another response is effective. Variable-interval Schedule = procedure in which reinforcement occurs after varying amounts of time. E.g. Reinforcement may come for the 1st response after 2 minutes, then for the first response after the next 7 seconds, then after 3 minutes 20 seconds... You can’t know how long before your next response is reinforced. Social-learning approach = view that we learn about many behaviours by observing the behaviour of others. Example: If you want to learn to drive a car, you start by watching people who are already skilled; your observations of others facilitate your progress. Social learning – a type of operant conditioning & the underlying mechanisms are similar; we learn by: Imitating behaviours that are reinforced; Avoiding behaviours that are punished. Vicarious Reinforcement & Punishment Vicarious Reinforcement = a response to an observed reinforcement as if it has happened to yourself. Involves learning through observation of the consequences of actions for other people. When learner observes someone that they identify with/role model receives reinforcement  motivated to imitate the behaviour as if they had been reinforced themselves. Vicarious Punishment = a type of social learning in which people perform a behaviour less often after they've seen someone else behave that way + experience negative consequences. Vicarious reinforcement works better > vicarious punishment; most people don’t identify with those who failed/received punishment Self-Efficacy in Social Learning Self-efficacy = belief of being able to perform a task successfully. We imitate someone else’s behaviour only if we have a sense of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one's own motivation, behaviour & social environment. Example: A student who has low level of self-efficacy in speaking English might avoid speaking to those who are fluent in English. A person who is good in gaming has high level of self-efficacy for most video games might sign up herself in a video game tournament.  TOPIC 6 MEMORY Methods of Testing Memory Free Recall describing what you remember. Free recall almost always understates/minimizes the actual amount you know. Cued Recall method to test memory by providing significant hints about the material. The cues/hints will help you remember better. Recognition Recognition = method of testing memory by asking someone to choose the correct item among options. People usually recognize more items > they recall. Saving Savings = method of testing memory by comparing the speed of original learning to the speed of relearning. If it takes you less time than when you first learned that material, some memory has persisted.  Free recall, cued recall, recognition, & savings are tests of explicit memory. Explicit (direct) memory = a memory that someone can state, recognizing it as a memory. They’re memories that are consciously recalled. Implicit Memory Implicit memory (indirect memory) = an influence of some experience on what you say/do even though you might not be aware of the influence. Information that people don't purposely try to remember is stored in implicit memory; sometimes known as unconscious/automatic memory. Implicit Memory Examples: Singing a familiar song; Typing on your computer keyboard; Implicit memories are largely unconscious & occur automatically; don't need to think about all steps to follow in order to complete a task. Procedural & Declarative Memories Procedural Memories Knowledge of how to do something. Essentially, procedural memory is a type of implicit memory. E.g. how to do something, such as walking or eating with chopsticks etc. Declarative Memories Memories we can readily state in words. Facts/memories of past events that can be ‘declared’ rather than performed. E.g. important life event, who came to dinner last night, your mom’s birthday, information about the world etc. Short-Term & Long-Term Memory Short-term memory = temporary storage of recent events. Long-term memory = a relatively permanent store. 2 types of long-term memory: Semantic memory = memory of principles & facts; e.g. Remembering who is your psychology lecturer. Episodic memory = memory for specific events in your life; e.g. Remembering an embarrassing moment at a party. Capacity of Short-Term & Long-Term Memory Psychologists have traditionally drawn several distinctions between short-term & long-term memory. One difference is capacity: Long-term memory – vast, hard-to-measure capacity. Short-term memory – limited capacity. Chunking = grouping items into meaningful sequences/clusters. By separating individual elements into larger blocks, information becomes easier to retain & recall; Decay of Memories over Time Why do short-term memories fade? Neuroscientists’ hypotheses: Brain representation decays over time – brain protein weakens a memory trace, presumably to avoid permanently storing unimportant information. Interference from similar memories which we get confuse one with another. Long-term memories last varying periods, up to a lifetime. Working Memory  Working memory = system for dealing with current information, including the ability to shift attention back & forth among tasks as necessary. Executive functioning = cognitive process that governs shifts of attention. The quality of good working memory is the ability to shift attention as needed among different tasks Factors That Influence Encoding Emotional Arousal Emotional arousal also enhances memory encoding. Moderate emotion provides benefits by increasing the release of hormones cortisol & adrenaline  stimulate brain areas that enhance memory storage. E.g. remembering your first day of college, your first kiss etc. Repetition The word ‘TOMATO’ was probably a word you remembered as it occurred several times instead of just once. Repetition helps in encoding, especially if repetitions are spread out. Primary & Recency Effects You would also likely remembered the word ‘LEMON’ & ‘WATERMELON’ as they were the first & last items on the list. Primacy effect = tendency to remember well the first items; Recency effect = tendency to remember the final items. Distinctiveness In a list of mostly similar items, the unusual ones are easier to remember. The word ‘CARROT’ was distinctive because of its size, colour & font. Mnemonic Devices Mnemonic device = any memory aid based on encoding items in a special way. An effective strategy to memorize something is to attach systematic retrieval cues to each term to remind yourself of the terms when you need them. Method of loci = procedure of memorizing a series of places & then using vivid images to associate each location with something you want to remember. It’s a type of mnemonic technique where items are transformed into mental images  linked to specific locations/positions. Retrieval & Interference Proactive interference = procedure in which old materials increase forgetting of new materials. §Older memories make it more difficult to learn new things. Example: if you move into a new house, you might find yourself accidentally writing your old address down when filling out forms. Retroactive interference = procedure in which new materials increase forgetting of old materials. Learning new things can make it more difficult to recall things that we already know. Example: a musician might learn a new piece, only to find that the new song makes it more difficult to recall an older, previously learned piece. Amnesia after Damage to the Hippocampus Amnesia results from many kinds of brain damage, including damage to the hippocampus. 2 types of amnesia: §Anterograde amnesia – inability to store new long-term memories. §Retrograde amnesia – loss of memory for events that occurred before the brain damage. Patients with damage to hippocampus have great difficulty storing new long-term declarative memories, especially episodic memories. However, they form normal short-term, procedural & implicit memories. Memory Impairments in Alzheimer’s Disease Alzheimer’s Disease = a progressive disease beginning with mild memory loss & possibly leading to loss of the ability to carry on a conversation & respond to the environment. Example Trouble handling money & paying bills. Difficulty completing familiar tasks at home, work/leisure. Decreased/poor judgment.  TOPIC 7 COGNITION AND LEARNING Cognition = thinking & using knowledge Attention 2 types of attention process: i.Bottom-up process ii.Top-down process Bottom-up process §Retrieval of sensory information from our external environment to build perceptions based on current input of sensory information. §Involves a stimulus automatically grabbing our attention. Top-down process §Applying experience & expectations to interpret perceived items. §The interpretation of incoming information based on prior knowledge, experiences, & expectations.  To identify the odd one out, we will need to go through an attentive process.  Attentive process = procedure that requires searching through the items in a series. Categorizing  Cognition enables us to categorize things. Conceptual Networks & Priming  Spreading Activation = process by which the activation of one concept activates/primes related concepts.  Examples: §If you hear flower, you are primed to think of rose, violet, & other flowers.  We link each concept to a variety of other related concepts.  Any stimulus that activates 1 of these concepts will also partly activate (or prime) the ones that are linked to it.  Priming = when someone is exposed to something that influences their behaviour later on (without the person being aware that the 1st thing guided their behaviour).  Priming is important in language 2 Types of Thinking & Problem Solving  Algorithm = an explicit procedure for calculating an answer/testing every hypothesis.  Heuristics = strategies for simplifying a problem & generating a satisfactory guess.  Heuristics provide quick guidance when we’re willing/forced to accept some possibility of error; work well most of the time. Maximizing & Satisficing Maximizing = a strategy that thoroughly considers as many choices as possible to find the best one. Satisficing = a strategy that involves searching only until you find something satisfactory. People using maximizing strategy usually make good choices but are often not fully pleased with them. Maximizing strategy is especially problematic when many choices are available. Satisficers look for something “good enough” & find it. Maximizers look for “the best” & continue to wonder whether they were right. Example: A satisficer & maximizer go out for a meal at a restaurant. A maximizer would have more trouble choosing a meal from a 6-page menu, because he/she wants to consider every choice. Meanwhile, a satisficer might find an acceptable choice quickly. The Sunk Cost Effect Sunk cost effect = willingness to do something because of money/effort already spent. Near Transfer & Far Transfer Psychologists distinguish between: Near transfer Far transfer Near transfer = benefit to a new skill based on practice of a similar skill. E.g. a student who learns an arithmetic rule with problems on a worksheet  applies the same rule in the same way on the same day to solve similar problems. Far transfer = benefit from practicing something not similar to it. E.g. a student uses the knowledge of Spanish to facilitates his learning of French.  Every species of animal has ways of communicating, but only human language has the property of productivity. Productivity = ability to combine words into new sentences that express an unlimited variety of ideas. Transformational grammar = system for converting a deep structure into a surface structure. Deep structure = underlying logic/meaning of a sentence. Surface structure = sequence of words as they are actually spoken/written. Williams Syndrome = genetic condition characterized by mental retardation in most regards but surprisingly good use of language relative to other abilities. Language Learning as a Specialized Capacity It’s suggested that people are born with a language acquisition device. Language acquisition device = built-in mechanism for acquiring language. Language & the Human Brain People with damage in the frontal cortex, including Broca’s area  develop Broca’s Aphasia. Broca’s Aphasia = condition characterized by difficulties in language production. Someone with Broca’s Aphasia: Speaks slowly & inarticulately (unable to express ideas/feelings clearly); Is especially impaired with using & understanding grammatical devices. People with damage in temporal cortex, including Wernicke’s area  develop Wernicke’s Aphasia. Wernicke’s Aphasia = condition marked by impaired recall of nouns & impaired language comprehension. Difficulty with nouns & impaired comprehension fit together: If we can’t remember what something is called, we’ll have trouble processing a sentence based on that word. As people with Wernicke’s Aphasia omit/misuse most nouns, their speech is hard to understand. Language in Early Childhood Age Typical Language Abilities (Individual May Vary) 3 Months Random vocalizations. 6 Months More distinct (clear) babbling. Babbling that resembles typical sounds of the family’s language; probably 1 or more words 1 Year including “mama”; language comprehension much better than production. Have a vocabulary of about 50 words, but seldom link words together; communicate 1.5 Years extensively by gestures (e.g. pointing). Start producing telegraphic phrases of 2 or more words; e.g. “all-gone sticky” (my hands are 2 Years now clean) Disadvantages of bilingualism: i.Children take longer to master 2 languages than one; their vocabulary lags behind those who speaks only 1 language. ii.Bilingual people often take longer than average to think of a word. Primary advantages of bilingualism: i.People who know another language can communicate with more people. Ii. Bilingual people learn to control their attention more effectively Reading Students of language distinguish between §Phonemes = linguistic unit of sound; e.g. ‘f’ or ‘sh’ §Morphemes = linguistic unit of meaning. Morphemes help us break an unfamiliar word into meaningful parts.  TOPIC 8 Consciousness Operational Definition of Consciousness Consciousness = subjective experience of perceiving oneself & one’s surroundings & action. Researchers today have several methods to record brain activity without invading the brain. Simplest methods: Electroencephalograph (EEG) Magnetoencephalograph (MEG) EEG & MEG uses detectors on the scalp to measure rapid changes in the brain’s electrical/magnetic activity. fMRI method identifies the location of activity more precisely. Ways of Controlling Consciousness of a Stimulus 1st Method: Masking On other trials, a masking pattern preceded & followed the word. 2nd Method: Flash Suppression Flsh Suppression = procedure of blocking consciousness of a stationary visual stimulus by surrounding it with rapidly flashing items. 3rd Method: Binocular Rivalry Binocular Rivalry = alteration between seeing the pattern in the left retina & the pattern in the right retina. Can We Use Brain Measurements to Infer Consciousness? Brain death = condition in which the brain shows no activity + no response to any stimulus. Coma = condition caused by traumatic brain damage in which the brain shows a steady but low level of activity + no response to any stimulus. Someone starting to emerge from a coma  enters a vegetative state. Vegetative State = condition marked by limited responsiveness to stimuli (e.g. increased heart rate in response to pain). Characteristics of Vegetative State: Peson is awake but shows no signs of awareness/any purposeful behaviours; May open eyes, wake up & fall asleep at regular intervals; Responsiveness varies between a sleeping state & a waking state; But even in the waking state, brain activity is well below normal. Minimally Conscious State = condition in which someone has brief periods of purposeful actions + speech comprehension. A vegetative or minimally conscious state can last for months or years. Because people in a vegetative state do nothing, it’s easy to assume that they are unconscious. Circadian Rhythms Circadian rhythms = rhythms of activity & inactivity lasting approximately 1 day. Part of the body’s internal clock which runs in the background to carry out essential functions & processes. Humans have mechanisms that prepare us for activity during the day & sleep at night. Circadian rhythm controls more than sleeping & waking. It also controls our hunger, thirst, urine production, blood pressure, alertness, body temperature etc. Sleepiness & alertness depend on the circadian rhythm (not just on how long a person didn’t sleep).  Stage Characteristics  Brain, eye movement, heartbeat & breathing slow down. NREM Stage N1  Muscles begin to relax. (Falling Asleep)  Last for a few minutes.  Less aware of surroundings.  Heartbeat & breathing slow down further/more regular. NREM Stage N2  Eye movements stop. (Light Sleep)  Body temperate drops.  Last about 25 minutes. Stage Characteristics  Progress into deepest sleep (where any noises/activity in the environment may fail to wake the sleeping person).  Muscles are completely relaxed. NREM Stage N3  Blood pressure drops, heartbeat & breathing are at the slowest rate. (Slow Wave Sleep)  No eye movements.  Tissue repair & growth & cell regeneration.  Immune system strengthens.  Stage Characteristics  Begins approximately 90 minutes after falling asleep.  Brain activity is markedly increased (closely resembles its activity when awake). Stage 4:  Body is temporarily paralyzed (to prevents you from acting out your dreams). REM Sleep  Starts to dream.  Eye movements become rapid.  Breathing & heart rate increases. Insomnia Insomnia = condition of not getting enough sleep to feel rested the next day. 6 hours sleep could be insomnia for someone, but adequate for another. Insomnia results from causes, including: Noise; Worries; Sleep Apnea Sleep Apnea = condition in which someone fails to breathe for a minute/more during sleep. People with sleep apnea may lie in bed for 8 – 10 hours but sleep less than half that time. Most common in overweight middle-aged men whose breathing passages become narrower than usual. Narcolepsy Narcolepsy = condition characterized by sudden attacks of sleepiness during the day. A neurotransmitter called orexin is important for maintaining long periods of wakefulness. People with narcolepsy lose the brain cells that produce orexin  return to a pattern resembling infants. Freud’s Theory of Dreams Sigmund Freud (founder of psychoanalysis) – dreams reveal the dreamer’s unconscious thoughts & motivations. To understand a dream, one must probe for hidden meanings. Each dream has a: Manifest content Latent content Manifest content = content that appears on the surface of a dream. Latent content = hidden ideas that a dream experience represents symbolically. Because latent contents are so painful & threatening  transformed into more acceptable manifest content. Many therapists offer dream interpretations that their clients find meaningful: Try to uncover disguised meanings by studying the symbols in the manifest content of the dream. Hypnosis Hypnosis 催眠 Hypnosis = condition of increased suggestibility that occurs in the context of a special hypnotist-subject relationship. Comes from the word ‘Hypnos’ = the Greek god of sleep. In short, it’s a trance-like mental state in which people experience increased attention, concentration & suggestibility. Uses & Limitations of Hypnosis Enhances suggestibility a little, but only a little. Hypnosis can help to inhibit pain. Although hypnosis can relieve pain cheaply & without side effects, few physicians & hospitals use it. Hypnosis doesn’t give people special strength/unusual powers. Hypnosis doesn’t improve memory accuracy: When asked to report their memories under hypnosis, people report a mixture of correct & incorrect information with much confidence. Other States of Consciousness Meditation打坐 Meditation = systematic procedure for inducing a calm, relaxed state. Mindfulness meditation involves a person being aware of the sensations of the moment but otherwise remain passive. While performing mindfulness meditation, one might concentrate on a single image/repeat a sound (e.g. “om”). Meditation Research studies suggest that meditation: §Increases relaxation; §Decreases pain; §Decreases anxiety; §Improves health. §Is useful for increasing people’s ability to control their attention & resist distraction. Déjà vu Experience 很像经历过 but没有经历过 Déjà vu experience = feeling that an event is uncannily familiar. More commonly, people report déjà vu in a familiar setting. In some cases (probably not all), déjà vu experience relates to abnormal activity in brain areas responsible for memory.  Topic 9 - Personality Freud’s Psychodynamic Approach Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) – Austrian physician who developed the psychodynamic theory. Psychodynamic theory = view that relates personality to the interplay of conflicting forces (including unconscious ones) within the individual. Freud interpreted dreams & slips of the tongue to infer unconscious thoughts & motivations Freud’s Search for the Unconscious Unconscious = repository of memories, emotions, & thoughts, many of them illogical, that affect our behaviour even though we can’t talk about them. Structure of Personality Id = sexual & other biological drives that demand immediate gratification. Ego = the rational, decision-making aspect of the personality. Superego = the memory of rules & prohibitions we learned from our parents & others. The Id Original system of personality; at birth a person is all id Lacks organization, blind, demanding, insistent & can’t tolerate tension; seeks to discharge tension immediately. Ruled by the pleasure principle  aimed at reducing tension, avoiding pain & gaining pleasure, Illogical, amoral & driven to satisfy instinctual needs. Id never matures, remaining the spoiled brat of personality. Doesn’t think, but only wishes/acts; largely unconscious (out of awareness). The Ego Has contact with the external world of reality. Acts as the “executive” that governs, controls & regulates personality. Mediates between the instincts & the surrounding environment. Controls consciousness & exercises censorship. Ruled by the reality principle  does realistic + logical thinking & formulates plans of action for satisfying needs. Serves as the seat of intelligence & rationality  checks & controls the blind impulses of id. The Superego Judicial branch of personality; includes a person’s moral code (main concern being whether an action is good/bad, right/wrong). Represents the ideal rather than the real & strives not for pleasure but for perfection. Seeks to inhibit the id impulses; persuade the ego (realistic) to substitute moralistic goals + strive for perfection. Related to psychological rewards & punishments. Defence Mechanisms against Anxiety Defence mechanisms = method employed by ego to defend itself against anxiety. Help people cope with anxiety & prevent the ego from being overwhelmed. Ego defenses are normal behaviours that can have adaptive value provided they don’t become a style of life that enables the individual to avoid facing reality. There are many types of ego-defenses; which one is used depends on individual’s level of development & degree of anxiety. Ego-Defense Mechanism Repression Involves the removal of something to the unconscious – rejecting unacceptable thoughts, desires, & memories. E.g. a person with repressed memories of being abused as a child may later have difficulty forming relationships. Denial Involves the refusal to believe unpleasant information. E.g. a people with substance use problem will often deny that their behaviour is problematic. Ego-Defense Mechanism Rationalization Involves attempting to demonstrate that one’s actions are justifiable. Avoiding the true reasons for the behaviour. E.g. someone who takes unfair advantage of another may say “Learning to deal with disappointment will make him a better person.” Displacement Involves diversion of a behaviour/thought away from its natural target toward a less threatening target. E.g. a man was scolded by his boss at work; because there would be negative consequences if he argues with the boss, later he went home and yelled at his wife and children to express his anger (which pose no threat to him). Repression §Involves the removal of something to the unconscious – rejecting unacceptable thoughts, desires, & memories. §E.g. a person with repressed memories of being abused as a child may later have difficulty forming relationships. Denial §Involves the refusal to believe unpleasant information. §E.g. a people with substance use problem will often deny that their behaviour is problematic. Rationalization §Involves attempting to demonstrate that one’s actions are justifiable. §Avoiding the true reasons for the behaviour. §E.g. someone who takes unfair advantage of another may say “Learning to deal with disappointment will make him a better person.” Displacement §Involves diversion of a behaviour/thought away from its natural target toward a less threatening target. §E.g. a man was scolded by his boss at work; because there would be negative consequences if he argues with the boss, later he went home and yelled at his wife and children to express his anger (which pose no threat to him).  Carl Jung & the Collective Unconscious Jung’s theory of personality emphasized people’s search for a spiritual meaning in life. Contrast to Freud – who traced much of adult personality to childhood events, Jung stressed the possibility of personality changes in adulthood. Collective unconscious = inborn thoughts & images that relate to the cumulative experience of preceding generations. The collective unconscious contains archetypes. Archetypes = vague images that have always been part of the human experience. Jung – believed people have tendencies to respond to universal situations in predetermined ways inherited from their ancestors. Adler’s Description of Personality Adler emphasized that personality depended on people’s goals, (especially their way of striving for a sense of superiority). Inferiority complex = feeling of weakness, inadequacy & helplessness. Regarded as a normal condition for all people + not a sign of weakness/abnormality.  Adler’s View of Psychological Disorders People with social interest want to cooperate  better mental health. Encourage clients to improve their social interest. People with social interest  tend to strive toward the healthy & socially useful side of life. Carl Rogers & Unconditional Positive Regard People evaluate themselves & their actions beginning in childhood; develop a self-concept & an ideal self. Self-concept = image of what a person really is. Ideal self image = of what a person would like to be. People who perceive much discrepancy between their self-concept & ideal self  feel distress. Humanistic psychologists try to help people overcome their distress by improving their self-concept or by revising their ideal self. To promote human welfare, people should relate to one another with unconditional positive regard. Unconditional positive regard = complete, unqualified acceptance of another person as he/she is. Issues in Personality Measurement Problem in measuring personality is that behaviour isn’t entirely consistent. An Example of Measurement Problems: Self-Esteem Self-esteem = evaluation of one’s own abilities, performance & worth.  Psychologists – predicted that high self-esteem  increased productivity + other good outcomes.  Problems:  Programmes developed to increase self-esteem yielded disappointing results.  Self-esteem improved; but has little effect on aggressive behaviour + decreases school & job performance.  Psychologists – predicted that successful people = high self-esteem,  Problem:  Many studies reported that many bright & accomplished young women report somewhat low self-esteem.  Message: Personality is difficult to measure; we should look carefully at how it was measured before we draw conclusions. Big Five Model of Personality Openness to Experience  Has a tendency to enjoy new intellectual experiences & new ideas.  People high in this trait enjoy:  Modern art;  Unusual music; Conscientiousness  Tendency to show self-discipline, to be dutiful, & to strive for achievement & competence.  People high in conscientiousness:  Work hard & complete their tasks on time;  Exercise;  Eat a healthy diet;  Agreeableness & conscientiousness both correlate with success in a wide variety of jobs. Extraversion  Tendency to seek stimulation & to enjoy the company of other people.  Associated with warmth, sociability, assertiveness, impulsiveness & a need for excitement.  Unpleasant side of extraversion:  Increased chance of alcohol abuse + other risky behaviours.  Pleasant side of extraversion:  Tend to feel good;  Report high life. Agreeableness  Tendency to be compassionate toward others.  It implies a concern for the welfare of other people (closely related to Adler’s concept of social interest).  People high in agreeableness:  Trust other people; expect other people to trust them; Influences of Age, Culture, & Cohort Best way to compare personalities across cultures is to observe actual behaviour.