UMK METHODOLOGY (PDF)

O‘ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI OLIY VA O‘RTA MAXSUS TA‘LIM VAZIRLIGI O‘ZBEKISTON DAVLAT JAHON TILLARI UNIVERSITETI INGLIZ TILI BIRINCHI FAKULTETI INGLIZ TILINI O‘QITISH METODIKASI KAFEDRASI TILLAR O‘QITISH METODIKASI VA TA‘LIM TEXNOLOGIYALARI...

O‘ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI OLIY VA O‘RTA MAXSUS TA‘LIM VAZIRLIGI O‘ZBEKISTON DAVLAT JAHON TILLARI UNIVERSITETI INGLIZ TILI BIRINCHI FAKULTETI INGLIZ TILINI O‘QITISH METODIKASI KAFEDRASI TILLAR O‘QITISH METODIKASI VA TA‘LIM TEXNOLOGIYALARI FANIDAN O‘QUV-USLUBIY MAJMUA Ta‘lim sohasi: 100000- Gumanitar soha 110000- Pedagogika Ta‘lim yo‘nalishi: 5111400- Xorijiy til va adabiyoti (ingliz tili) Toshkent 2024 Tuzuvchilar: Umarova.M.B. O‘zDJTU ingliz tilini o‘qitish metodikasi kafedrasi katta o’qituvchisi Tursunova.F. O‘zDJTU ingliz tilini o‘qitish metodikasi kafedrasi o’qituvchisi O‘quv-uslubiy majmua O‘zbekiston davlat jahon tillari universiteti Ingliz tili 1-fakulteti Ilmiy kengashida tavsiya qilingan (2024 yil 27.08 dagi « 1 » bayonnoma) ANNOTATSIYA: Ushbu o‘quv uslubiy majmua tillar o‘qitish metodikasi va ta‘lim texnologiyalari fani bo‘yicha Davlat Ta‘lim Standarti va namunaviy ishchi dastur asosida tuzilgan ishchi o‘quv dasturi, yillik kalendar-tematik rejasi, fanning o‘qitish texnologiyasi, oraliq va yakuniy nazorat testlari, mustaqil ish mavzulari ro‘yxati va ko‘rgazmali taqdimot slaydlarini o‘z ichiga oladi. Ma‘ruza matnlari bakalavr darajasidagi talabalarga chet til o‘qitish metodikasi ilmiy-nazariy masalalari, metodlari (usullari), tamoyillari va qo‘llash, o‘qitshni tashkil qilish bo‘yicha atroflicha bilim berish, shu bilan birga, ularning kelajakdagi ish faoliyatlarida amaliy ahamiyatkasb etuvchi metodik bilim, ko‘nikma va malakalarni shakllantirish va rivojlantirishdan ifodasini topgan. Majmuada tillar o‘qitish metodikasi va ta‘lim texnologiyalari fanini o‘qitishda zamonaviy o‘qitishdagi faol metodolar va pedogogik axborot kommunikativ texnologiyalardan keng foydalanilgan. Ushbu o‘quv - uslubiy majmua 4-kurs talabalariga tillar o‘qitish metodikasi va ta‘lim texnologiyalari fanidan malaka va ko‘nikmalarini yanada o‘stirishga yordam beradi. Mashg‘ulotlar texnologiyasi audio-video vositalari va kompyuter texnologiyalari yordamida taqdimotlar o‘tkazishga moslashtirilgan. 2  O‘QUV-USLUBIY MAJMUA TARKIBI: 1. O‘quv materiallari 2. Mustaqil ta‘lim mashg‘ulotlari 3. Glossariy 4. Ilovalar 3  LECTURE 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT MATTER OF TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGE METHODOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES. AIMS, PRINCIPLES AND CONTENT OF TFLM Lecture outline: 1. Introduction to the subject TFLM 2. Modern language policy in the Republic of Uzbekistan 3. Methodology as a science 4. Links of TFLM with other sciences 5. Types, aims, principles and content of TFLM I. Modern language policy in the Republic of Uzbekistan is based on: 1. The Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan, December 10, 1992 (Articles 41-42) 2. LAW ―On Education‖, August 29, 1997 3. National Program for Training Specialists, 1997 4. PRESIDENTIAL DECREE №1875 (December 10, 2012) ―About Measures due to Further Developing System of Teaching Foreign Languages‖ 5. PRESIDENTIAL DECREE №1971 (May 23, 2013) About Measures due to Development of Functioning Uzbekistan State University of World Languages 2. Common European Framework of Reference: Teaching, Learning, Assessment, 2001. Presidential Decree №1875 About Measures due to Further Developing System of Teaching Foreign Languages Applying International Standards Teaching FL since 1st FORM Creating National Standards Organizing National Testing Center Raising Teachers‘ Salary Providing Modern Equipments for Foreign Language Rooms Involving Mass Media in raising awareness of FL role nowadays Stable Financial Support by the Ministry Of Finance of the Ruz Presidential Decree №1971 (May 23, 2013) About Measures due to Development of Functioning Uzbekistan State University of World Languages UzSWLU is appointed as basic scientific and practical center. Creating Innovative Center Reconstruction of USUWL Buildings Methodology (M) is considered as a young and boarder science because it is based on the links with many sciences from one side and methodology uses its own conceptions and theoretical decisions. M as a science has been originated in the end of 19th and beginning 20th century, that‘s why its achievements are not so grateful as in other sciences. Methodology in professional sense has 3 main notions: 1. Methodology as a subject 2. Methodology as set or system of methods, principles, and rules for regulating a given discipline, as in arts or sciences 3. Methodology as a theory of teaching and a science. Question: What do you think why methodology started its development in the end of 19th century? Remember history. 4  TFLM is a science researching aims, content, methods, approaches, strategies, systems of teaching and upbringing based on the materials of foreign languages. Essence of methodological science is investigation leading to discovering and grounding consequences of teaching, discovering objective structure and essence of researching feature. As a result research leads to creating theoretical grounds of scientifically proved methodical recommendations. In modern methodical literature methods of investigation are subdivided into basic and supplementary. Basic methods of investigation: - Critical literature analyses; - Studying and generalizing positive experience of the best teachers; - Scientifically fixed observation; - Probative teaching; - testing teaching; - Experimental teaching. Supplementary methods of investigation: - Questionnaire; - Testing; - Talking; - Chronometrical; - Interview. Questions: 1. Why are questionnaire, testing, talking, chronometrage and interview called supplementary methods of investigation? 2. What is the difference between teaching method and research method? There are 3 functionally different types of methodology: 1. General methodology. 2. Private methodology. 3. Special methodology. General methodology deals with studying consequences and peculiaritiesof the teaching foreign languages process despite which foreign language is studied. Private methodology studies features of teaching concrete foreign language (English, French etc.) Special methodology tries separate aspects of teaching theorywhich are of special importance forrealizing foreign language teaching and upbringing process (ex. System of exercises for teaching English). Question: What do you think TFLM is general, private or special? And why? Historical methodology (history of teaching methods), experimental methodology (theory of experiment while researching teaching process), comparative methodology (fixing peculiarities of teaching foreign languages in different regions) are recognized also. Teaching foreign languages Methodology is separate pedagogical science and it links with many other sciences. Question: How do you think what sciences are closely connected with methodology? Teaching foreign languages Methodology (TFLM) studies issues aimed at teaching and upbringing learners through means of the subject that‘s why its links are varied and they maybe divided into 3 groups: First of all TFLM is based on data and laws of Linguistics because language is a subject of Linguistics. Secondly, TFLM closely connected with Psychology, and this connection is realized in 2 directions: 1. Links with Psychology of speech (ex. Oral and written speech). 5  2. Links with Pedagogical psychology deals with ways of developing knowledge and skills alongside realizing higher psychological functions in teaching process. 3. Thirdly TFLM is based on general provisions of Didactics and theory of upbringing because based on the common положениyaх didactics and theory of education, Didactics and theory of upbringing form principles and rules of teaching but Methodology concretizes these provisions concerning specific subject such as foreign language. Thus Linguistics, Pedagogy and Psychology are closer sciences to the TFLM than others dealing with speech and processes of transition of information. That‘s why these sciences are considered basic sciences for TFLM. Question: What other sciences are connected with TFLM and why? TFLM also deals with Psycholinguistics, Physiology, Theory of information and communication. Linguistics and Psycholinguistics study speech as process of sending and getting information through language codes. Physiology deals with age features of people. Modern methods of teaching and ICT are implemented into teaching foreign language process nowadays successfully. TFLM deals also with such sciences as Literature, Geography, and History of the countries which languages are studied. The Aims of teaching foreign language methodology. Teaching foreign languages as teaching any other subject is based on realizing practical upbringing and educative aims of teaching. Practical aim The main task of this aim is to teach language as a means of communication in order to understand thoughts of other people and to express own thoughts in oral and written form. Practical acquisition of foreign language means acquiring some or all types of speech. Upbringing aim The main task of this aim is to develop patriotic attitude to the values of native culture, tolerance to the foreign culture and humanistic outlook to the worldwide changes through the learning and teaching foreign language. Educational aim The main task of this aim is to develop leaner‘s language skills, to wide their outlook by studying foreign and native culture features. Content of teaching foreign language Everything that is aimed at teaching learners is traditionally understood as content of teaching. Content of teaching includes following components – language materials (phonetics, grammar, vocabulary), knowledge and skills, topics, texts, language notions that native language doesn‘t have (article), skills to use dictionaries and literature, ICT, etc. Content of teaching is never fixed and it changes due to the aims and time. Nowadays selection of the Content of teaching is based on 2 basic principles: 1. Principle of necessity and sufficiency of the content. 2. Principle of ability and accessibility of the content. 6  First principle means that the content of teaching must cover those language means, texts and etc. which are not only necessary for achieving aims but sufficient for realizing those aims of teaching. Second principle supposes real abilities of learners for acquisition of the selected materials. Teaching principles Teaching principles are tried as important part of methodology. The term ―principle‖ means starting position for teaching and upbringing learners. Teaching process in educational establishments is realized on the basis of didactic principles. These principles are aimed at achieving effective education, acquiring basis of knowledge and developing skills to apply obtained knowledge in real life. The most recognized principles are: 1. Visual principle. 2. Scientific principle. 3. Systematic principle. 4. Principle of accessibility. 5. Principle of considering learner‘s individual abilities. 6. Cognitive principle. Teaching foreign language Methodology based on general didactic principles has created methodical principles: 1. Communicative (speech) approach to teaching foreign language. 2. Consideration of native language peculiarities. 3. Prevailing role of exercises on the all stages and in all spheres of foreign language acquisition. QUESTIONS What are the tasks of Teaching English Methodology at school? What is methodological basis of TEM? What do you think about the fact that Methodology started its development in 19th century? Remember history. What research methods are there in methodology? Why are questionnaire, testing, talking, chronometrage and interview called supplementary methods of investigation? What is the difference between teaching method and research method? What do you think TEM is general, private or special? And why? Name aims, grounds, reasons for linking TFLM with other sciences. What sciences are closely connected with TFLM? How does TFLM link with linguistic sciences? How does TFLM link with Psychology? How does TFLM link with Pedagogy? What other sciences are connected with TFLM and why? What are the requirements to the selecting content of teaching? What methodical principles do you know? What teaching methods in methodology do you know? REFERENCES 1. Jalalov J.J. and others.. English Language Teaching Methodology, 2015 pp.4-17, written short 7  answers on the questions on p. 17 2. Presidential Decrees №1875 (10.12.2012), №1971 (23.05.2013), №2909 (04.04.2017) 3. National Standard on FLT ( May 8, 2013) 4. CEFR monograph 8  SLIDES Some of 44 CEFR States Austria UK USA Finland Netherlands Spain Canada Hong Kong China Sweden Belgium Germany Portugal France Ireland Singapore Korea India Italy Source: MATIMOP / MOF RESEARCH METHOD It is a scientifically and experimentally checked way of getting factual materials and theoretical knowledge about the object of research. 9  LINKS OF TFLM with other SCIENCES PEDAGOGY DIDACTICS TFLM LINGUISTICS PSYCHOLOGY TYPES of TFLM GENERAL METHODOLOGY PRIVATE (SPECIAL) METHODOLOGY COMPARATIVE METHODOLOGY (different countries) HISTORICAL METHODOLOGY (analyzing conceptions of the past) EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY (creating theories of realizing methodical researches). 10 11  LECTURE 2. Historical overview of language teaching methods and approaches. Theories of second language acquisition PLAN: 1. Teaching foreign languages in the world 2. Teaching foreign languages in Uzbekistan 3. Approaches of teaching foreign language 4. Methods of teaching foreign language English has become an international language and its range of functions is increasing everywhere including Uzbekistan. International Language Hegemony of the English language is a global phenomenon and the onset of modern technology, the computer; and as the choice language of the academia will further strengthen it. Melvia A. Hasman reported about three factors of English spreading: 1) usage in science, technology and commerce; 2) the ability to incorporate vocabulary from other languages; 3) the acceptability of various English dialects. Today, in the information age, developing information-communication technology and Internet-mediation communication demands knowing English. International cooperation in all spheres of life is organized on the English language. For the last period English occupied the function of lingua franca, language-mediator for the representatives of communication. Sometimes it is called the language of international politics and diplomacy, business communication and international conferences. It is also understood as language- mediator for non-native speakers within intercultural communication. Ann Ife states, this may involve interaction between mother tongue (L1) speakers and those using a second or foreign language (L2); or between speakers using different varieties of the same L1, as within the varied English speaking or Spanish-speaking world, where cultural assumptions are not necessarily shared,in spite of a shared language‖68. Thus, all parties use a language adopted for the purposes of wider communication. From the linguistic point of view the simplicity of language structures is recognized in the lingua franca. It is time to answer the question. Why is it important for us to learn English? All non-native speakers may distinguish the following major reasons: 1. English may be a factor for obtaining better employment opportunities. 2. English is the medium of communication for business, recreation and competitive tournaments. 3. English is almost mandatory for learners pursuing higher academic achievements and publishing of one‗s findings. 4. The knowledge of English may provide higher social standing or identity in many cases. Therefore, the English language empowers a person both in terms of social and material power. Thus we can see the attraction towards learning English. The choices that the language communities have is either to have subtractive learning of English and forget one‗s own linguistic heritage, as is happening mostly in developing countries; or to make the learning process additive by retaining one‗s own language intact. It can be assumed that the later alternative is more acceptable. Spreading English makes an appearance of many topical issues; all people are interested in them. The first, the role of other foreign languages is decreasing. It follows to decreasing hours for 12 teaching other foreign languages as German, French at educational institutions and as effect to unemployment for the specialists of these languages. The second, it leads us towards convergence of all world languages into one giant English language. Because of the advent of printing, and more recently, media, languages, specifically English, are being standardized so that there is uniformity in the manner we write and speak. Many believe this to be a positive step towards world unification. There may be advantages in uniformity, but the question is – does it outweigh the disadvantages that it might bring in the form of ‗language death‗? The prominence of English might be an indicator of decline of other languages. When a language is lost, it is not only the means of communication that is lost with it. There are contextual and cultural associations with languages, and in addition, it also forms the corpora of accumulated knowledge of a community. All this will also be lost with the dying language. Moreover, there is a strong affinity of the language with the identity of a person or a community. Although English may provide with alternate identity, the primary form of identity shall be lost, especially if the learning of English is subtractive in terms of the first language. Historical survey of FL teaching in the world Language teaching has been around and changing over the centuries. It is very interesting to look back at the history of FL. It serves us to get to know the different trends and choose the best way to teach the FL. The history of FL teaching goes back at least to the ancient Greeks. They were interested in what they could learn about mind and the will through language learning. The Romans were probably the first to study a FL officially. They studied Greek, taught by Greek tutors and slaves. Their approach was less philosophical and more practical than that of Greeks. In Europe before the 16 century, much of the language teaching enclosed teaching Latin to priests. In the 16 and 17 centuries, French was a lingua franca for speaking to foreigners. Mostly court members spoke French, and also it was a required language for travelers, traders and soldiers. French was greatly taught throughout this period, and a study of documents, textbooks, literature indicate that language teachers of that time were considering the same issues that are being considered today. These contained issues about practice versus learning rules and formal study versus informal use. The status of Latin changed during this period from a living language that learners needed to be able to read, write and speak, to a dead language which was studied as an intellectual exercise. The analysis of the grammar and rhetoric of Classical Latin became the model language teaching between the 17 and 19 centuries, a time when thought about language teaching became fixed in Europe. Emphasis was on learning grammar rules and vocabulary by rote, translations, and practice in writing sample sentences. The translated or written sentences by students were examples of grammatical points and usually had not much relationship to the real world. This method became known as the grammar-translation method. Though some people tried to challenge this type of language education, it was difficult to overcome the attitude that Classical Latin (and to a lesser degree Greek) was the most ideal language and the way it was taught was the model for the way language should be taught. When modern languages were taught as a part of the curriculum, beginning in the 18 century, they were usually taught using the same method as Latin. The grammar-translation method was the dominant FL teaching method in Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s, and a version of it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world, even today. However, even as early as the mid-19th, theorists were beginning to doubt about the principles behind the grammar-translation method. Changes were beginning to happen. There was an impressively large demand for ability to speak FL, and various reformers began reconsideringthe nature of language and of learning. Among these reformers were two Frenchmen, C. Marcel and 13 F. Gouin, and an Englishman, T. Pendergast. Through their unrelated observations, they concluded that the way that children learned language was relevant to how adults should learn language. Marcel emphasized the significance of understanding meaning in language learning. Pendergast proposed the first structural syllabus. He proposed arranging grammatical structures so that the easiest were taught first. Gouin believed that children learned language through using language fora sequence of related actions. He stressed presenting each item in context and using gestures to supplement verbal meaning. Though the ideas of these and other reformers had some influence for a time, they didn‗t become widespread or last long. They were outside of the established educational circles, and the networks of conferences and journals which exist today didn‗t exist then to spread their ideas. Nevertheless, in the late 1800s and early 1900s, linguists became interested in the problem of the best way to teach languages. These reformers, as Henry Sweet of England, Wilhelm Victor of Germany, and Paul Passy of France, believed that language teaching should be based on scientific knowledge about language, that it should begin with speaking and expand to other skills, that words and sentences should be presented in context, that grammar should be taught inductively, and that translation should, for the most part, be avoided. These ideas spread, and were consolidated in what became known as the Direct method, first of the natural methods. The Direct method became popular in language schools, but it was not very practical with larger classes or in public schools. In the early to mid-1900s developments in other fields such as psychology, behaviorism has had a great effect on language teaching resulting in the audio-lingual method. The audio-lingual method has students listen to or view tapes of language models acting in situations. Studentspractice with variety of drills, and their instructor emphasizes the use of the target language at all times. The audio-lingual method was used by the United States Army for ―crash‖ instruction in FL during World War II. Despite the documented success of these programs, they are no longer common. In the years following World War II, great changes took place that influenced on language teaching and learning. Language diversity greatly increased so there were more languages to learn. Expansion of schooling meant that language learning was no longer the privileged of the elite but something necessary for widening range of people. More opportunities for international travel and business and international social and cultural exchanges increased the demand for language learning. As a result, renewed efforts were made in the 1950s and 1960s to 1) use new technology (e.g., tape recorders, radios, TV and computers) effectively in language teaching, 2) explore new educational models (e.g., bilingual education, individualized instruction, etc.) and 3) establish methodological innovations (audio-lingual method). Yet, the desired increase in the effectiveness of language education didn‗t come about, and some of the theoretical footings of the developments were called into issue. The start of the mid-1960s is distinguished by a range of theoretical challenges to the audio- lingual method. Linguist Noam Chomsky challenged the behaviorist model of language learning. He proposed a theory called Transformational Generative Grammar, as per which learners do not acquire an endless list of rules but limited set of transformations which can be used over and over again, (e.g., a sentence is changed from affirmative to a negative sentence by adding not and the auxiliary verb.) so that the language learner can form big number of sentences. Other theorists have also proposed ideas influencing language teaching. Stephen Krashen, for example, studied the way that children learn language and applied it to adult language learning. He proposed the Input Hypothesis, which states that language is acquired by using comprehensible 14  input (the language that one hears in the environment) which is slightly beyond the learners‗ present proficiency. There have been big developments since the early 1970s. Individualized instruction, development of communicative approach, more humanistic approach to language learning and finally a greater stress on authenticity in language learning has become more required. In agreement with specifics of FLT and its action-oriented character there are methods of teaching: 1) demonstration (presentation); 2) explanation; 3) practice (training); 4) feedback and self-control. The methods of interaction In determination of methods, the distinction between ―philosophy of language teaching at the level of theory and principles and a set of derived procedures for teaching a language, is central‖1. E. Antony2 identified three levels of conceptualization and organization, which he named approach, method and technique. According to his model: approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified; method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented; technique is a level at which classroom procedures are described. Approachn is considered to be the theory about the feature of language and language learning that stands as the source of practices and principles in language teaching. J.C. Richards and Th. S. Rodgers present linguistic and psycholinguistic aspects of approach, as follows: a) theory oflanguage which has three different theoretical views of language and nature of language proficiency: the structural, functional and interactional view; b) theory of language learning which associates with a method at the level of approach emphasizing either one or both of these dimensions: process oriented and condition oriented theories3. The second level at which approaches and methods are treated is a design and it is a dimension specially developed for an instructional system which leads an approach to a method. At this level of method analysis objectives, language content, learning tasks and teaching activities, role of students, role of teachers and role of instructional materials are designated. And the third level of approach and methods analysis-procedure is concerned with how the tasks and activities are integrated into lessons and used as a basis for teaching and learning. Thus, methods are held to be fixed in teaching systems with prescribed techniques and practices, whereas approaches represent language teaching philosophies that can be interpreted and applied in a variety of different ways in the classroom. Method can be distinguished according to the teaching and learning context and it is used in wide context (Communicative language teaching)and narrow context (project work, problem-solving, brainstorming). Approach and method are based on the principles as initial theoretical points. Procedure itself includes task, techniques and activities. Tasks and activities can be considered as exercises. Technique is a way for a teacher to organize a learner‘s activity. Through techniques we develop in learners productive, receptive and interactive skills that are necessary for effective communication. APPROACHES IN FLT The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques 1 Richards J.C., Rodgers Th. S. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Second ed. -Cambridge: CUP, 2002. -P.19. 2 Antony (1963:63-67), cited in the book: Richards J.C., Rodgers Th. S. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Second ed. -Cambridge: CUP, 2002. 3 Richards J.C., Rodgers Th. S. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Second ed. -Cambridge: CUP, 2002. -P.19. 15  carry out a method which is consistent with an approach...... An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. 1t describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught....... Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural. Within one approach, there can be many methods... A technique is implementational – that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, 20rganizat, or contrivance us~d to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method,and therefore in harmony with an approach as well. (Anthony 1963:63-) Linguistic and Psycholinguistic Aspects of Approach Theory of language has 3 different theoretical views of language and nature of language proficiency: the structural – language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. - Functional – language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. interactional –language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals Structural, functional, or interactional models of language (or variations on them) provide the axioms and theoretical framework that may motivate a particular teaching method Theory of language learning emphasizes the following dimensions: - process-oriented or - condition-oriented learning (Richards J.& Rodger Th.). CONTENT OF APPROACH Approach is an instructional system based on theories of language and language learning which concretizes - methods, - - aims, - -language content, - -tasks, - activities, - -the role of the teacher and learners, - the role of teaching materials, etc. Methods of FL teaching ⚫ A method is an organized, orderly, systematic, and well-planned procedure aimed at facilitating and enhancing students‘ learning. ⚫ It is undertaken according to some rule, which is usually psychological in nature. That is, it considers primarily the abilities, needs, and interests of the learners. ⚫ Method is employed to achieve certain specific aims of instruction. To make it as an effective instrument, it should be presented with certain amount of efficiency and ease. ⚫ THE TEACHING METHOD aims to achieve greater teaching and learning output, thus saving time, efforts and even money on the part of both the teacher and the learner. ⚫ METHOD directs and guides the teacher and the students in undertaking any class lesson or activity. In methodology the different approaches are used to distinguish methods. They can be classified according to different criteria. 16  1. According to the sources of information (sources transmission and acquiring the knowledge): 1) verbal methods – lecture, conversation, explanation; 2) method of working with a book – working on textbook, reading additional literature, preparation of messages, abstracts); 3) method of observation, experiment; 4) methods of exercises and practice – practical experience of learners. 2. According to the quality parameters as particular features of cognitive process they are: 1) explanative-illustrative method; 2) reproductive method; 3) problem-recount method; 4) partly- searching method; 5) research. 3. In agreement with specifics of FLT and its action-oriented character there are methods of teaching: 1) demonstration (presentation); 2) explanation; 3) practice (training); 4) feedback and self- control. 4. The methods of interaction between a teacher and learners oriented to the FLT in the aspect of organization are: 1) familiarization of the teaching material on the basis of visual-sensory perception; 2) independent comprehension of teaching material and operations with it; 3) practice for production of speech; 4) practice for reception of speech; 5) motivational production of oral and written speech; 6) motivational reception of oral and written speech; 7) control, correction and evaluation of speech acts of a productive plan; 8) control, correction, evaluation of speech acts of a receptive plan. These methods demonstrate the interaction between a teacher and learners: a teacher (or textbook) organizes the algorithm of operation and actions, and learners implement them. These methods related to the general didactic methods reflect the specifics of EL as a subject and levels of FL acquisition. But at the same time they bring the dominant idea, for instance, method of observation or explanative-illustrative method. They are tools which can be used consecutively while working on the new material. If we use visual aids, motivational strategies, various situational contexts, during the presentation of new material, then learners will better percept, comprehend and remember the new material. These methods put together a hierarchical system; they are in collateral subordination; a learner moves from step of familiarization to comprehension, then to training and to using, i.e. to communication. As well as in teaching process it is necessary to undertake an assessment for effective gaining accuracy and fluency by learners. For this aims various ways (methods) are used. Age groups for choice of methods in teaching process It is important for teachers to getacquainted with current instructional methods and their underlying principles as well as effective classroom techniques, materials, and assessment strategies appropriate to a certain stage depending on the learners‘ age group. ―Age‖ can be seen as a learner variable, a contextual consideration that can be rated alongside knowing ―who‖ exactly your students are, and ―where‖ and ―why‖ they are learning English as EL. While it would perhaps be rash to say that this or that specific method matches this or that specific age group of learners, there are definitely general considerations for various age groups that ought to encourage teachers to be mindful/selective of the kinds of teaching methods and techniques they use according to the age of their students. Features of age groups and stages of education are presented in the Table 5. We need to compare them in the aspect of opportunities for the ELT intellectual development. Table 5. Age group of learners Age groups of learners Stage of education 1. Young Learners: It is well-known that children (ages 5-12) are very much Pre- orientated in their minds around the ―here and now‖ and directly school visible/perceivable environment. Grammatical rules/explanations areusually and lost on them, as are somewhat ―adult‖ notions of what is correct and primary what isn‘t. They develop well when given plenty of examples and patterns education. to follow. They tend to have a much shorter attention span and need 1-6 forms. 17  activities that capture their immediate interest. They also need much in the way of ―sensory input‖ – that is, they need to have many or all of their five senses stimulated at once. While generally less inhibited than adults in terms of experimenting with new language, they tend to have more fragile egos and can be very sensitive to their peers. 2. Teenagers: The ages 12-18 coincide with a time of rapid transition and Secondary change, both mentally and physically. As teenagers begin to develop more education. cognitive ability, they can be exposed to language learning techniques that 7-9 forms. require more logical and/or abstract thinking. Attention span begins to Special lengthen, but there are also more distractions of an emotional nature. secondary Probably the most important considerations for these learners are education ―affective‖ ones. Issues to do with ego and self-esteem are at their height, – and teenagers can be incredibly sensitive to the ways others see their physical, academic mental and emotional development. Real or perceived errors can shatter lyceum confidence and detract from risk-taking. Teachers of teenagers need to be and able to find ways to draw on and develop cognitive, analytical and vocational logic skills, whilst being constantly mindful of feedback techniques and college confidence building strategies. students. 3. Adults: Teachers of adults need to bear in mind that these learners have Higher longer attention spans and can handle learning that requires more cognition education. and abstract thinking. They tend to respond well to the teaching of grammatical rules. They may not be as willing to be ―risk-takers‖, and generally need to feel respected and that they have a ―choice-making‖ role in the classroom. Each approach and method put into practice will be shaped at least by the teacher, the students, the conditions of instruction, and the broader socio-cultural context. A particular method cannot be participation for success for everyone. First of all, choosing the method depends on the goal, characteristic, age, and contents of the lesson. The English teacher may choose from a wide range of methods such as conversation, presentation, re-telling, translation, etc. An EL teacher might also consider selecting from this range of methods. For the 1-2 class learners at school the EL is presented, practiced and learned throughspeaking and listening. For these learners effective classroom strategies have traditionally involved use of plays, songs, rhymes and stories with repeated language structures. One way to captureyoung children under 7-8 years attention and keep them engaged in activities is to supplement the activities with lots of brightly colored visuals, toys, puppets, or objects to match the stories that a teacher tells or songs that a teacher sings. These can also help make the language comprehensible and can be used for follow-up activities, such as retelling stories or guessing games. Listening and drawing the pictures (animals) is a very effective method for teaching young children EL. It is successful to move smoothly from one activity to another; one activity can be only for 5-10 minutes. The goal of all early language education (1-4 forms) should be to hook pupils when they are young and keep them interested in learning English for the rest of their lives. So, the goals of English instruction for young learners should be to: 1) make children feel competent and confident while learning English; 2) provide a safe, entertaining, and educational environment: 3) create basis for life- long learning English. ELT at colleges is organized within content-based and task-based instructions. The methods which are used at college: analysis and reading the specialized texts, working with terms, problem- solving, clustering, grouping, matching, etc. Word- problem activity can be built around almost any theme. The audio/video means can be used in teenager groups at schools, academic lyceums and colleges. Diligently used, they help teachers assure themselves that their students perceive 18 intonation and pronunciation easier, and understand English leisurely by hearing it. Students‘reading may be corrected handier. Explanations may be offered to learners while they are watchinga certain video material on the topic. While watching a film or a documentary they have the chance to hear native speakers talking. Students can also write a dictation (recorded on tape). Literary passages may be recorded and after the learners have heard them, they comment or analyze them, etc. When it comes strictly to video materials, we can distinguish between before-watching activities, while- watching activities, and after-watching activities. Including all these in a lesson, working with the video images becomes really productive and offers learners the possibility to broaden both their cultural horizon and their knowledge. How many approaches are there in language learning? Throughout history, there have been just over 30 popular approaches to language learning. However, there are around 10 that are most widely known including task-based learning, the communicative approach, grammar-translation and the audio-lingual approach. These days, the communicative approach is all the rage. What is language teaching approaches? A language teaching approach is a way of thinking about teaching and learning. An approach produces methods, which is the way of teaching something, in this case, a second or foreign language using techniques or activities. What are method and approach? Method and approach are similar but there are some key differences. An approach is the way of dealing with something while a method involves the process or steps taken to handle the issue or task. What is the best method of English language teaching? It‘s difficult to choose the best single approach or method for English language teaching as the one used depends on the age and level of the students as well as the material being taught. Most teachers find that a mix of the communicative approach, audio-lingual approach and task- based teaching works well in most cases. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching Teaching a foreign language can be a challenging but rewarding job that opens up entirely new paths of communication to students. It‘s beneficial for teachers to have knowledgeof the many different language learning techniques including ESL teaching methods so theycan be flexible in their instruction methods, adapting them when needed. Keep on reading for all the details you need to know about the most popular foreign language teaching methods. Some of the ones covered are the communicative approach, total physical response, the direct method, task-based language learning, suggestopedia, grammar- translation, the audio-lingual approach and more. 19  Most Popular Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: Top 11 #1: The Direct Method In the direct method, all teaching occurs in the target language, encouraging the learner to think in that language. The learner does not practice translation or use their native language in the classroom. Practitioners of this method believe that learners should experience a second language without any interference from their native tongue. Instructors do not stress rigid grammar rules but teach it indirectly through induction. This means that learners figure out grammar rules on their own by practicing the language. The goal for students is to develop connections between experience and language. They do this by concentrating on good pronunciation and the development of oral skills. This method improves understanding, fluency, reading, and listening skills in our students. Standard techniques are question and answer, conversation, reading aloud, writing, and student self-correction for this language learning method. #2: Grammar-Translation With this method, the student learns primarily by translating to and from the target language. Instructors encourage the learner to memorize grammar rules and vocabulary lists. There is little or no focus on speaking and listening. Teachers conduct classes in the student‘s native language with this ESL teaching method. This method‘s two primary goals are to progress the learner‘s reading ability to understand literature in the second language and promote the learner‘s overall intellectual development. Grammar drills are a common approach. Another popular activity is translation exercises that emphasize the form of the writing instead of the content. Although the grammar-translation approach was one of the most popular language teaching methods in the past, it has significant drawbacks that have caused it to fall out of favour in modern schools. Principally, students often have trouble conversing in the second language because they receive no instruction in oral skills. #3: Audio-Lingual The audio-lingual approach encourages students to develop habits that support language learning. Students learn primarily through pattern drills, particularly dialogues, which theteacher uses to help students practice and memorize the language. These dialogues follow standard configurations of communication. There are four types of dialogues utilized in this method: Repetition, in which the student repeats the teacher‘s statement exactly 20  Inflection, where one of the words appears in a different form from the previoussentence (for example, a word may change from the singular to the plural) Replacement, which involves one word being replaced with another while the sentence construction remains the same Restatement, where the learner rephrases the teacher‘s statement This technique‘s name comes from the order it uses to teach language skills. It starts with listening and speaking, followed by reading and writing, meaning that it emphasizes hearing and speaking the language before experiencing its written form. Because of this,teachers use only the target language in the classroom with this TESOL method. Many of the current online language learning apps and programs closely follow the audio- lingual language teaching approach. It is a nice option for language learning remotely and/or alone, even though it‘s an older ESL teaching method. #4: Structural Approach Proponents of the structural approach understand language as a set of grammatical rules that should be learned one at a time in a specific order. It focuses on mastering these structures, building one skill on top of another, instead of memorizing vocabulary. This is similar to how young children learn a new language naturally. An example of the structural approach is teaching the present tense of a verb, like ―to be,‖ before progressing to more advanced verb tenses, like the present continuous tense that uses ―to be‖ as an auxiliary. The structural approach teaches all four central language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. It‘s a technique that teachers can implement with many other language teaching methods. Most ESL textbooks take this approach into account. The easier to grasp grammatical concepts are taught before the more difficult ones. approaches-methods-language-teaching-learning Most popular methods and approaches and language teaching #5: Total Physical Response (TPR) The total physical response method highlights aural comprehension by allowing the learner to respond to basic commands, like ―open the door‖ or ―sit down.‖ It combines language and physical movements for a comprehensive learning experience. In an ordinary TPR class, the teacher would give verbal commands in the target language with a physical movement. The student would respond by following the command with a physical action of their own. It helps students actively connect meaning to the language and passively recognize the language‘s structure. 21  Many instructors use TPR alongside other methods of language learning. While TPRcan help learners of all ages, it is used most often with young students and beginners. It‘s a niceoption for an English teaching method to use alongside some of the other ones on this list. An example of a game that could fall under TPR is Simon Says. Or, do the following as a simple review activity. After teaching classroom vocabulary, or prepositions, instruct students to do the following: Pick up your pencil. Stand behind someone. Put your water bottle under your chair. Etc. Are you on your feet all day teaching young learners? Consider picking up some of these teacher shoes. #6: Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) These days, CLT is by far one of the most popular approaches and methods in language teaching. Keep reading to find out more about it. This method stresses interaction and communication to teach a second language effectively. Students participate in everyday situations they are likely to encounter in the target language. For example, learners may practice introductory conversations, offering suggestions, making invitations, complaining, or expressing time or location. Instructors also incorporate learning topics outside of conventional grammar so that students develop the ability to respond in diverse situations. CLT teachers focus on being facilitators rather than straightforward instructors. Doing so helps students achieve CLT‘s primary goal, learning to communicate in the target language instead of emphasizing the mastery of grammar. Role-play, interviews, group work, and opinion sharing are popular activities practiced in communicative language teaching, along with games like scavenger hunts and information gap exercises that promote student interaction. Most modern-day ESL teaching textbooks like Four Corners, Smart Choice, or Touchstone are heavy on communicative activities. #7: Natural Approach This approach aims to mimic natural language learning with a focus on communication and instruction through exposure. It de-emphasizes formal grammar training. Instead, instructors concentrate on creating a stress-free environment and avoiding forced language production from students. 22  Teachers also do not explicitly correct student mistakes. The goal is to reduce student anxiety and encourage them to engage with the second language spontaneously. Classroom procedures commonly used in the natural approach are problem-solving activities, learning games, affective-humanistic tasks that involve the students‘ own ideas, and content practices that synthesize various subject matter, like culture. #8: Task-Based Language Teaching (TBL) With this method, students complete real-world tasks using their target language. This technique encourages fluency by boosting the learner‘s confidence with each task accomplished and reducing direct mistake correction. Tasks fall under three categories: Information gap, or activities that involve the transfer of information from one person, place, or form to another. Reasoning gap tasks that ask a student to discover new knowledge from a given set of information using inference, reasoning, perception, and deduction. Opinion gap activities, in which students react to a particular situation by expressing their feelings or opinions. Popular classroom tasks practiced in task-based learning include presentations on an assigned topic and conducting interviews with peers or adults in the target language. Or, having students work together to make a poster and then do a short presentation about a current event. These are just a couple of examples and there are literally thousands of things you can do in the classroom. It‘s considered to be a modern method of teaching English. I personally try to do at least 1-2 task-based projects in all my classes each semester. It‘s a nice change of pace from my usually very communicative-focused activities. One huge advantage of TBL is that students have some degree of freedom to learn the language they want to learn. Also, they can learn some self-reflection and teamwork skills as well. #9: Suggestopedia Language Learning Method This approach and method in language teaching was developed in the 1970s by psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It is sometimes also known as the positive suggestion method but it later became sometimes known as desuggestopedia. Apart from using physical surroundings and a good classroom atmosphere to make students feel comfortable, here are some of the main tenants of this second language teaching method: Deciphering, where the teacher introduces new grammar and vocabulary. 23  Concert sessions, where the teacher reads a text and the students follow along with music in the background. This can be both active and passive. Elaboration where students finish what they‘ve learned with dramas, songs, or games. Introduction in which the teacher introduces new things in a playful manner. Production, where students speak and interact without correction or interruption. #10: The Silent Way The silent way is an interesting ESL teaching method that isn‘t that common but it does have some solid footing. After all, the goal in most language classes is to make them as student- centred as possible. In the Silent Way, the teacher talks as little as possible, with the idea that students learn best when discovering things on their own. Learners are encouraged to be independent and to discover and figure out language on their own. Instead of talking, the teacher uses gestures and facial expressions to communicate, as well as props, including the famous Cuisenaire Rods. These are rods of different colours and lengths. Although it‘s not practical to teach an entire course using the silent way, it doescertainly have some value as a language teaching approach to remind teachers to talk less and get students talking more! #11: Functional-Notional Approach This English teaching method first of all recognizes that language is purposeful communication. The reason people talk is that they want to communicate something to someone else. Parts of speech like nouns and verbs exist to express language functions and notions. People speak to inform, agree, question, persuade, evaluate, and perform various other functions. Language is also used to talk about concepts or notions like time, events, places, etc. The role of the teacher in this second language teaching method is to evaluate how students will use the language. This will serve as a guide for what should be taught in class. Teaching specific grammar patterns or vocabulary sets does play a role but the purpose for which students need to know these things should always be kept in mind with the functional- notional Approach to English teaching. #12: Test Teach Test Approach (TTT) This style of language teaching is ideal for directly targeting students‘ needs. It‘s best for intermediate and advanced learners. Definitely don‘t use it for total beginners! There are three stages: A test or task of some kind that requires students to use the target language. 24  Explicit teaching or focus on accuracy with controlled practice exercises. Another test or task is to see if students have improved in their use of the targetlanguage. QUESTIONS 1.Think about core of the FL as the subject. 2.What do we mean by the linguo- cultural education? 3.Why did Latin language as FL dominate in the world? 4.Can you explain the core of the Grammar translation method? 5.What are the approaches and methods in language teaching? 6.What are the 5 approaches to teaching? 7.What is the best method in teaching English? 8.What is the difference between method and approach? 9.Can you give example for teaching methods? 10.What differences can be pointed out between approach and method? 11.Does technology have the same sense as method or not? 12 Why is Comminicative Language Teaching a dominant and effective approach in FLT?How is language viewed? 13.What are basic approaches to FLT nowadays? 14.What criteria are used for distinguishing methods? 15.What kind of methods are used for presenting new material? 16.Are the same methods used in all stages of education? REFERENCES 1. J.J.Jalalov. English Language Teaching Methodology. T. 2015 2. J.J.Jalalov. English Language Teaching Methodology. T. 2012 3. Richards J.C., Rodgers Th. S. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Second ed. –Cambridge: CUP, 2002 LECTURE 3. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING. PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the communicative approach (CA), is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study. Learners in environments using communication to learn and practice the target language by interactions with one another and the instructor, the study of "authentic texts" (those written in the target language for purposes other than language learning), and the use of the language both in class and outside of class. Learners converse about personal experiences with partners, and instructors teach topics outside of the realm of traditional grammar to promote language skills in all types of situations. That method also claims 25 to encourage learners to incorporate their personal experiences into their language learning environment and to focus on the learning experience, in addition to the learning of the target language. According to CLT, the goal of language education is the ability to communicate in the target language. This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. CLT also positions the teacher as a facilitator, rather than an instructor. Furthermore, the approach is a non-methodical system that does not use a textbook series to teach the target language but works on developing sound oral and verbal skills prior to reading and writing. CLT teachers choose classroom activities based on what they believe will be most effective for students developing communicative abilities in the target language (TL). Oral activities are popular among CLT teachers compared to grammar drills or reading and writing activities, because they include active conversation and creative, unpredicted responses from students. Activities vary based on the level of language class they are used in. They promote collaboration, fluency, and comfort in the TL. The six activities listed and explained below are commonly used in CLT classrooms. Role-play Role-play is an oral activity usually done in pairs, whose main goal is to develop students' communicative abilities in a certain setting. Example: 1. The instructor sets the scene: where is the conversation taking place? (E.g., in a café, in a park, etc.) 2. The instructor defines the goal of the students' conversation. (E.g., the speaker is asking for directions, the speaker is ordering coffee, the speaker is talking about a movie they recently saw, etc.) 3. The students converse in pairs for a designated amount of time. This activity gives students the chance to improve their communication skills in the TL in a low-pressure situation. Most students are more comfortable speaking in pairs rather than in front of the entire class. Instructors need to be aware of the differences between a conversation and an utterance. Students may use the same utterances repeatedly when doing this activity and not actually have a creative conversation. If instructors do not regulate what kinds of conversations students are having, then the students might not be truly improving their communication skills. Interviews An interview is an oral activity done in pairs, whose main goal is to develop students' interpersonal skills in the TL. Example: 1. The instructor gives each student the same set of questions to ask a partner. 2. Students take turns asking and answering the questions in pairs. 26 This activity, since it is highly structured, allows for the instructor to more closely monitor students' responses. It can zone in on one specific aspect of grammar or vocabulary, while still being a primarily communicative activity and giving the students communicative benefits. This is an activity that should be used primarily in the lower levels of language classes, because it will be most beneficial to lower-level speakers. Higher-level speakers should be having unpredictable conversations in the TL, where neither the questions nor the answers are scripted or expected. If this activity were used with higher-level speakers it wouldn't have many benefits. Group work Group work is a collaborative activity whose purpose is to foster communication in the TL, in a larger group setting. Example: 1. Students are assigned a group of no more than six people. 2. Students are assigned a specific role within the group. (E.g., member A, member B, etc.) 3. The instructor gives each group the same task to complete. 4. Each member of the group takes a designated amount of time to work on the part of the task to which they are assigned. 5. The members of the group discuss the information they have found, with each other and put it all together to complete the task. Students can feel overwhelmed in language classes, but this activity can take away from that feeling. Students are asked to focus on one piece of information only, which increases their comprehension of that information. Better comprehension leads to better communication with the rest of the group, which improves students' communicative abilities in the TL. Instructors should be sure to monitor that each student is contributing equally to the group effort. It takes a good instructor to design the activity well, so that students will contribute equally, and benefit equally from the activity. Information gap Information gap is a collaborative activity, whose purpose is for students to effectively obtain information that was previously unknown to them, in the TL. Example: 1. The class is paired up. One partner in each pair is Partner A, and the other is Partner B. 2. All the students that are Partner A are given a sheet of paper with a time-table on it. The time-table is filled in half-way, but some of the boxes are empty. 3. All the students that are Partner B are given a sheet of paper with a time-table on it. The boxes that are empty on Partner A's time-table are filled in on Partner B's. There are also empty boxes on Partner B's time-table, but they are filled in on Partner A's. 4. The partners must work together to ask about and supply each other with the information they are both missing, to complete each other's time-tables. Completing information gap activities improves students' abilities to communicate about unknown 27 information in the TL. These abilities are directly applicable to many real-world conversations, where the goal is to find out some new piece of information, or simply to exchange information. Instructors should not overlook the fact that their students need to be prepared to communicate effectively for this activity. They need to know certain vocabulary words, certain structures of grammar, etc. If the students have not been well prepared for the task at hand, then they will not communicate effectively. Opinion sharing Opinion sharing is a content-based activity, whose purpose is to engage students' conversational skills, while talking about something they care about. Example: 1. The instructor introduces a topic and asks students to contemplate their opinions about it. (E.g., dating, school dress codes, global warming) 2. The students talk in pairs or small groups, debating their opinions on the topic. Opinion sharing is a great way to get more introverted students to open up and share their opinions. If a student has a strong opinion about a certain topic, then they will speak up and share. Respect is key with this activity. If a student does not feel like their opinion is respected by the instructor or their peers, then they will not feel comfortable sharing, and they will not receive the communicative benefits of this activity. Scavenger hunt A scavenger hunt is a mingling activity that promotes open interaction between students. Example: 1. The instructor gives students a sheet with instructions on it. (e.g. Find someone who has a birthday in the same month as yours.) 2. Students go around the classroom asking and answering questions about each other. 3. The students wish to find all of the answers they need to complete the scavenger hunt. In doing this activity, students have the opportunity to speak with a number of classmates, while still being in a low-pressure situation, and talking to only one person at a time. After learning more about each other, and getting to share about themselves, students will feel more comfortable talking and sharing during other communicative activities. Since this activity is not as structured as some of the others, it is important for instructors to add structure. If certain vocabulary should be used in students' conversations, or a certain grammar is necessary to complete the activity, then instructors should incorporate that into the scavenger hunt. Criticism Although CLT has been extremely influential in the field of language teaching, it is not universally accepted and has been subject to significant critique. In his critique of CLT, Michael Swan addresses both the theoretical and practical problems with CLT. He 28 mentions that CLT is not an altogether cohesive subject but one in which theoretical understandings (by linguists) and practical understandings (by language teachers) differ greatly. Criticism of the theory of CLT includes that it makes broad claims regarding the usefulness of CLT while citing little data, it uses a large amount of confusing vocabulary, and it assumes knowledge that is predominately not language- specific (such as the ability to make educated guesses) to be language-specific. Swan suggests that those theoretical issues lead to confusion in the application of CLT techniques. Where confusion in the application of CLT techniques is readily apparent is in classroom settings. Swan suggests that CLT techniques often suggest prioritizing the "function" of a language (what one can do with the language knowledge one has) over the "structure" of a language (the grammatical systems of the language). That priority can leave learners with serious gaps in their knowledge of the formal aspects of their target language. Swan also suggests that in CLT techniques, the languages that a student might already know are not valued or employed in instructional techniques. Further critique of CLT techniques in classroom teaching can be attributed to Elaine Ridge. One of her criticisms of CLT is that it falsely implies that there is a general consensus regarding the definition of "communicative competence," which CLT claims to facilitate. Because there is no such agreement, students may be seen to be in possession of "communicative competence" without being able to make full or even adequate use of the language. That individuals are proficient in a language does not necessarily entail that they can make full use of that language, which can limit an individual's potential with that language, especially if that language is an endangered language. That criticism largely has to do with the fact that CLT is often highly praised and is popular though it may not necessarily be the best method of language teaching. Ridge also notes that CLT has nonspecific requirements of its teachers, as there is no completely standard definition of what CLT is, which is especially true for the teaching of grammar, the formal rules governing the standardized version of the language in question. Some critics of CLT suggest that the method does not put enough emphasis on the teaching of grammar and instead allows students to produce utterances, despite being grammatically incorrect, as long as the interlocutor can get some meaning from them. Stephen Bax's critique of CLT has to do with the context of its implementation. Bax asserts that many researchers associate the use of CLT techniques with modernity and so the lack of CLT techniques as a lack of modernism. That way, those researchers consider teachers or school systems that fail to use CLT techniques as outdated and suggest that their students learn the target language "in spite of" the absence of CLT techniques, as if CLT were the only way to learn a language, and everyone who fails to implement its techniques is ignorant and cannot teach the target language. Other Activity Types in CLT Many other activity types have been used in CLT, including the following: Task-completion activities: puzzles, games, map-reading, and other kinds of classroom tasks in which the focus is on using one’s language resources to complete a task. Information-gathering activities: student-conducted surveys, interviews, and searches in which students are required to use their linguistic resources to collect information. Opinion-sharing activities: activities in which students compare values, opinions, or beliefs, such as a ranking task in which students list six qualities in order of importance that they might consider in choosing a date or spouse. 29  Information-transfer activities: These require learners to take information that is presented in one form, and represent it in a different form. For example, they may read instructions on how to get from A to B, and then draw a map showing the sequence, or they may read information about a subject and then represent it as a graph. Reasoning-gap activities: These involve deriving some new information from given information through the process of inference, practical reasoning, etc. For example, working out a teacher’s timetable on the basis of given class timetables Emphasis on Pair and Group Work Most of the activities discussed above reflect an important aspect of classroom tasks in CLT, namely that they are designed to be carried out in pairs or small groups. Through completing activities in this way, it is argued, learners will obtain several benefits: They can learn from hearing the language used by other members of the group. They will produce a greater amount of language than they would use in teacher-fronted activities. Their motivational level is likely to increase. They will have the chance to develop fluency. Teaching and classroom materials today consequently make use of a wide variety of small-group activities. The Push for Authenticity Since the language classroom is intended as a preparation for survival in the real world and since real communication is a defining characteristic of CLT, an issue which soon emerged was the relationship between classroom activities and real life. Some argued that classroom activities should as far as possible mirror the real world and use real world or “authentic” sources as the basis for classroom learning. Clarke and Silberstein (1977, 51) thus argued: Classroom activities should parallel the “real world” as closely as possible. Since language is a tool of communication, methods and materials should concentrate on the message and not the medium. The purposes of reading should be the same in class as they are in real life. Arguments in favor of the use of authentic materials include: They provide cultural information about the target language. They provide exposure to real language. They relate more closely to learners’ needs. They support a more creative approach to teaching. 30  Lecture 4. The use of modern educational technologies and interactive methods in teaching English as a foreign language PLAN 1. What is educational technology? 2. Educational technologies in teaching English 3. Problem Solving Technology 4. Project Technology 5. Developing Thinking Technology 6. Learning in Cooperation Technology 7. Module Technology 8. Interactive methods in teaching English Notions ―Technology, pedagogical/educational technology Technology is meant as a procedure of teaching and learning FL in the classrooms. By technology of teaching we understand the complex system including algorithm of operations and actions and ways of acquiring the content of FLT for achievement the result of FLT/ FLL as a certain level of communicative competence. Pedagogical technology is a set of psycho-pedagogical instructions defined special combination of methods, strategies, and techniques for teaching. Problem Solving Technologies Problem-solving is the ability to identify and solve problems by applying appropriate skills systematically. https://www.teachervision.com/problem- solving/problem-solving Problem-solving is a process—an ongoing activity in which we take what we know to discover what we don‘t know. It involves overcoming obstacles by generating hypo-theses, testing those predictions, and arriving at satisfactory solutions. Problem-solving involves three basic functions: 1. Seeking information 2. Generating new knowledge 3. Making decisions The Steps in Problem-Solving In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps. Many researchers refe to this as the problem-solving cycle, which includes developing strategies and organizing knowledge. While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution. Instead, we often skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is reached. 1. Identifying the Problem: While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless. 2. Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the 31  problem so that it can be solved. 1. Forming a Strategy: The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual‘s unique preferences. 2. Organizing Information: Before coming up with a solution, we need to first organize the available information. What do we know about the problem? What do we not know? The more information that is available, the better prepared we will be to come up with an accurate solution. Case Studies CASE STUDY Case studies are stories. They present realistic, complex, and contextually rich situations and often involve a dilemma, conflict, or problem that one or more of the characters in the case must negotiate. A good case study, according to Professor Paul Lawrence is: ―the vehicle by which a chunk of reality is brought into the classroom to be worked over by the class and the instructor. A good case keeps the class discussion grounded upon some of thestubborn facts that must be faced in real life situations.‖ Case studies vary in length and detail, and can be used in a number of ways, depending on the case itself and on the instructor‘s goals. They can be short (a few paragraphs) or long (e.g. 20+ pages). They can be used in lecture-based or discussion-based classes. They can be real, with all the detail drawn from actual people and circumstances, or simply realistic. They can provide all the relevant data students need to discuss and resolve the central issue, or only some of it, requiring students to identify, and possibly fill in (via outside research), the missing information. They can require students to examine multiple aspects of a problem, or just a circumscribed piece. They can require students to propose a solution for the case or simply to identify the parameters of the problem. The Nine Steps of Project-Based Learning Whether students work individually, in pairs, or in groups, having them design something from scratch taps their creative abilities. When using the project-based learning strategy, it is almost guaranteed that the endeavor will be interdisciplinary. The teacher‘s role is to serve as coach, guiding students to use a variety of resources, employ a strategy that is fun and motivating, and uncover content with depth and breadth. If we examine project-based learning in the most general way, we can break it down into the following nine steps (of course, teacher-coaches should modify the steps accordingly to suit the task and the students): 1. The teacher-coach sets the stage for students with real-life samples of the projects they will be doing. 2. Students take on the role of project designers, possibly establishing a forum for display or competition. 3. Students discuss and accumulate the background information needed for their designs. 4. The teacher-coach and students negotiate the criteria for evaluating the projects. 5. Students accumulate the materials necessary for the project. 6. Students create their projects. 32 7. Students prepare to present their projects. 8. Students present their projects. 9. Students reflect on the process and evaluate the projects based on the criteria established in Step 4. DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING The potential of the human mind is absolutely phenomenal, and Tony Buzan is one of the world‘s leading experts on how people can maximize their brainpower. Now, in his most comprehensive book yet on the topic, Buzan reveals exciting new ways to improve one‘s memory, concentration, creativity, ability to learn, and more. Tony Buzan is an author and educational consultant. He is a proponent of the techniques of Mind Mapping and mental literacy. He has worked with: corporate entities and businesses all over the world; academics; Olympic athletes; children of all ages; governments; and high profile individuals, in teaching them how to maximize the use of their brain power. Teaching Strategies to Promote Critical Thinking Do Not Always Jump in to Help It‘s too easy to always find a solution for a student who needs your help. Kindergarteners especially will get very upset when they can‘t find their crayons or scissors. The easy way for a teacher to answer is ―It‘s OK, you can borrow a pair of scissors from me.‖ Instead of always readily finding a solution for your students, try responding with ―Let‘s think about how we can find them.‖ Then, you can assist the student in figuring out the best possible solution for finding their lost item. Brainstorm Before Everything You Do One of the easiest and most effective ways to get young children to think critically is to brainstorm. Regardless of subject, have students think about what they‘ll be doing, learning, or reading— before actually starting each activity. Ask a lot questions, like ―What do you think this book will be about?‖ Or ―Tell me three things you think you will be learning in this lesson about space?‖ Give students every opportunity you can to be critical thinkers. Classify and Categorize Classification plays an important role in critical thinking because it requires students to understand and apply a set of rules. Give students a variety of objects and ask them to identify each object, then sort it into a category. This is a great activity to help students think and self-question what object should go where, and why. Compare and Contrast Much like classifying, students will need to look closely at each topic or object they are comparing and really think about the significance of each one. You can have students compare and contrast just about anything—try this out with the book your class is reading now. Compare and contrast the weather forecast for today and yesterday. Compare the shape and color of a pumpkin to another vegetable. Compare and contrast today‘s math lesson with last week‘s—the ideas are endless. Make Connections Encouraging students to make connections to a real-life situation and identify patterns is a great 33 way to practice their critical thinking skills. Ask students to always be on the look for these connections, and when they find one to make sure they tell you. Provide Group Opportunities Group settings are the perfect way to get your kids thinking. When children are around their classmates working together, they get exposed to the thought processes of their peers. They learn how to understand how other people think and that their way is not the only route to explore. When this valuable skill is introduced to students early on in the education process, students will be capable of having complex thoughts and become better problem solvers when presented with difficulty. It‘s important for students to possess a variety of skills, but it‘s just as important for them to understand the skills and how, and when to use them. Cooperative Learning Steps Pre-Implementation After deciding to implement cooperative learning, the biggest challenge will be planning and readying the classroom and students for CL. According to Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (1991), there are several tasks that an instructor must accomplish before implementing cooperative learning in the classroom. This section will detail those responsibilities. Specify Instructional Objectives (academic and social) of CL- The instructor must explain why she is using CL, describe its benefits, and the results typically found from using CL. To aid in this explanation, the instructor might produce and distribute a handout that describes collaborative learning. Determine Group Size and Assign Students to Groups- Group size can range from two to four students, depending on the CL task. These groups can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. Groups can be formed by putting students together who share common strengths, interests, etc, or they can be randomly assigned. Once the groups are assigned, though, they should not be changed too often; students need time to develop a cohesive group and work together for a while before moving to a different group. Arrange room- Instructors should optimize the space in their classroom so that students/groups can interact and move about the room easily. It is essential that a group‘s seats face one another. Further, research tools should be made easily available either in the classroom or in another room near the classroom (see, Resource-based Learning chapter for a more detailed discussion of this). Plan instructional materials to promote interdependence- The instructional methods and materials that an instructor chooses must allow each individual to contribute to the group‘s success in a unique and meaningful way. Without these unique contributions, a group‘s structure and cohesion will be put in jeopardy. Assign group roles- There is some debate about whether or not the instructor should play a role in this decision. Whether or not an instructor chooses to assign roles within a group, they should make sure there is a distinct role for each student. Also, the instructor should choose or assist the students in choosing roles that use their strengths and improve their areas of weakness. Instructors should also oversee that students don‘t choose the same role over and over again. Some of the roles that could be chosen or assigned include facilitator, timekeeper, recorder, checker (for understanding), summarizer, elaborator (on prior knowledge or discussion points), research-runner (gets materials), and wild card (does anything else that needs to be done). 34  Assign task- When picking an assessment task (product to be produced), the instructor should choose one standard to address and match it to the learning approach. The cooperative learning group‘s task should be interesting, challenging, and motivating. It should also be a performance driven and authentic task. The instructor should clearly explain procedures for the task, provide structure (especially useful for inexperienced CL students), and set a specific time frame for each part and the whole task. Finally, the instructor should question the students to check for understanding of the task and its procedures. Explain Criteria for Success- The instructor should communicate the group-work skills that will be evaluated. A rubric should also be created, possibly with the students‘ assistance, which will be used to evaluate the group-work skills as well as the assessment task. Structure positive interdependence and accountability- Group size should be kept small so that each member participates and contributes uniquely to the group. Instructors should also ―test‖ groups and individuals by asking questions of both. A group should be asked to collectively explain its results and individuals should be able to defend their own position as well as the group‘s as a whole. Specify desired behaviors- An essential part of cooperative learning‘s success is teaching students how to work in a group. To accomplish this, the instructor can conduct mini-lessons on ways to respect others (i.e. praise, taking turns, and shared decision making). Students also need to be trained in conflict-resolution. Finally, it would be wise to use icebreaker activities before beginning so that students find that they have something in common. ICT tools for teachers E-creation tools Those tools enable English language learners to be creative. They involve playing with and using language to create, explore, and discover while producing content and learning performances that can be measured. Examples of these tools include web publishing, presentations software, exercise creating tools, podcasting, camera, moviemakers, and audio makers. E-communication tools Software that promote communication among students and teachers may be divided into two kinds of tools. First, there are those types of software that allow for in real time interaction (i.e. synchronous) such as telephone conversations, a board meeting, voice conferencing, and instant messaging. The second type of software includes those that occur with a time delay (i.e. asynchronous) such as email, text messages transmitted over cell phones, and discussion boards. Reading/ writing-facilitative e-tools Some ICT tools can facilitate and boost teaching and learning of writing and reading skills.Examples of these tools include online boards, online journals, blogs, wikis, and e-books. Blogs, wikis, boards and journals can be used to create digital material or portfolios online are spaces where learners work in collaborative projects. They can also be used for professionaldevelopment or to summarize learners‘ work. Examples of these tools are blogger, wikispaces and Penzu. They can be accessed by following these link: https://webwhiteboard.com/ 35  https://penzu.com https://www.wikispaces.com/content/classroom https://www.blogger.com/ Similarly, E-books have many functionalities. Learners can use them to develop their reading skill. For instance, e-books have added audio, interactive tasks and built-in dictionaries. Another advantage of this tool is that learners can access e-books on several devices such as tablets, mobile phones, and laptops. Listening/speaking-facilitative e-tools The listening skill can be developed through ICT tools such as: Video and audio files; Podcasts (syndicated audio files) and vodcasts (syndicated video files); Audio Video sharing libraries like YouTube. E-assessment tools. Tony Erbe et al., (2009) list three basic performance types of assessment, namely, performances, portfolios, and projects. The main difference between these types of assessment and standardized traditional tests lies in the fact that with the alternative assessment tools, the leaner ―produces evidence of accomplishment of curricula objectives‖. This evidence is put in the form of a performance, project, or portfolio and can be ―archived and used at a later date with other pieces of learning evidence as a compilation of proof to demonstrate achievement.‖ Erben et al., (2009: 153) Virtual learning environments Virtual Learning Environments (VLE) are Web-based platforms that allow teachers and learners to manage and organize their work electronically. Some of the benefits of these online spaces are as follows: Both parents and learners can access these spaces to assess progress. All participants may have their say on the discussion forums or conferencing sections VLEs reduce the social distance between all participants. MODULE TEACHING TECHNOLOGY Definition Module is a unit of work in a course of instruction that is virtually selfcontained and a method of teaching that is based on the building up skills and knowledge in discrete units. Creating a Module If you are interested in creating a module, please contact Sean Fox (sfox at 38rganiza.edu). The Parts of a Module https://serc.carleton.edu/sp/howto/module.html The goal of a module is to provide the full range of information that a faculty member needs to successfully implement a teaching method. We use a structured format for modules to make it easy for faculty to browse across multiple methods. Each module has these parts: An overview page: The overview pages serves as a table of contents to the module. Users browse this page to decide if they want to look further. More on creating an overview page A What page: This page describes the teaching method and its distinguishing features. More on creating a What page 36  A Why page: This page describes when and why the method is particularly effective using the educational literature. More on creating a Why page A How page: This page, the most popular destination describes how to use the method effectively with tips for the instructor. More on creating a How page A collection of examples: The examples, drawn from the discipline or school of interest to the target audience bridges between the module content and the teaching experience of the user.Examples make the module relevant and understandable while providing ideas for ways in which the instructor can use the method. Each module should have at least 10 activities associated with it More on creating activities A Reference Page: This page lists all references used in the module. If references are web pages or articles that are available online, please create links. For journal articles that require a subscription, link to the free abstract rather than the article itself. Peer Review: Once your module is ready to be published, it will be peer-reviewed. For more information, see the Module Review page. DISCUSSION Specific Tools and Strategies Beginning Learning Student Names Knowing and using student names is an oft-overlooked but vital foundation for an effective discussion. This article, published in the National Teaching and Learning Forum, is a compendium of 27 concrete tips from faculty across the country on learning and remembering student names. The Dreaded Discussion: Ten Ways to Start by historian Peter Frederick, points out ten ways to jump-start a discussion, from having students generate concrete images or illustrative quotations from the reading, to engaging in debates or role play. This website summarizes those strategies. Questioning, Listening, Responding It is important to think about what kinds of questions to ask, of whom, at what point in the discussion. There are many ways to categorize kinds of questions, as explained in the following resources: Bloom‘s Taxonomy is a summary of Benjamin Bloom‘s classic six-part scheme (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation), originally published in 1956. The taxonomy outlines intellectual tasks (easily framed as questions) that build in cognitive complexity. For more on Bloom‘s Taxonomy, see Major Categories in the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Facing Common Challenges Six Ways to Discourage Learning is a nice article from the Education Office of the American Astronomical Society discussing six classroom behaviors you should note and avoid, such as insufficient ―wait time‖ for an answer, or fixation at a low-level