UCSP-Q1-NOTE PDF

UCSP UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS CULTURE - Latin: “cultura” or “cultus”, which means care and cultivation. - It is the custom beliefs social forms, and traits that defines a specific racial and religious or social group SOCIE...

UCSP UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS CULTURE - Latin: “cultura” or “cultus”, which means care and cultivation. - It is the custom beliefs social forms, and traits that defines a specific racial and religious or social group SOCIETY - Latin: “socius”, which means comrade or friend. - group of individuals involved in social interaction or sharing the same geographical or social territory. POLITICS - Latin: “politika” which means affairs of the cities. - achieving and exercising positions of governance over a human community SOCIAL VS. A. Social Science NATURAL SCIENCE - A branch of science that studies about culture, society, and politics are parts and parcel of a larger body of knowledge with the integration of systematic processes and scientific method. B. Natural Science - A branch of science that deals with the natural world its processes, elements, and composition. WHAT IS - Latin: “Anthropos”, for man, human and “Logos”, for study. ANTHROPOLOGY? - Focuses on discovering when, where, and why humans appeared on Earth, their changes over time, and variations in modern human populations. - Anthropologist are interested in how and why past and present societies vary in ideas and practices. Anthropology’s basic concerns: 1. Physical traits 2. Human behavior 3. Variations and differences among different groups of humans 4. Evolutionary past of Homo Sapiens and how it has influenced social organization and culture. SUBFIELDS OF 1. Biological Anthropology GENERAL 2. Cultural Anthropology ANTHROPOLOGY 3. Linguistic Anthropology 4. Archeological Anthropology BIOLOGICAL - Investigates human biological diversity across time and space. ANTHROPOLOGY - Multidisciplinary, drawing on fields like biology, zoology, geology, anatomy, physiology, medicine, public health, osteology, and archaeology. - Aims to understand human behavior from a biological perspective, focusing on evolutionary history and biological variation. - Five (5) special interests within biological anthropology: 1. Paleoanthropology 2. Human genetics 3. Human growth and development 4. Human biological plasticity 5. Primatology  UCSP CULTURAL - The study of human society and culture, describing, analyzing, ANTHROPOLOGY interpreting, and explaining social and cultural similarities and differences. - Combines ethnography and ethnology - seeks to understand universals and variations in human cultures both past and present Two Disciplines of Cultural Anthropology: 1. Ethnography o Produces accounts (books, articles, films) of specific communities, societies, or cultures based on fieldwork. o Involves living in the studied community for an extended period. o Focuses on local behavior, beliefs, customs, social life, economic activities, politics, and religion. 2. Ethnology o Uses ethnographic data to build models, test hypotheses, and create theories to understand social and cultural systems. o Works from specific ethnographic data to general theories. ARCHAELOGICAL - Reconstructs, describes, and interprets past human behavior and ANTHROPOLOGY cultural patterns through material remains. - Archaeologists uses palaeoecological studies to establish the ecological and subsistence parameters within which groups lived. ARCHEOLOGY - Seeks to understand human history primarily through material remains. - Archaeological record provides a unique opportunity to observe changes in social complexity over thousands of years, a time depth not accessible to ethnographers. - Archaeology is not restricted to prehistoric societies o Historical archaeology combines archaeological data and textual data to reconstruct historically known groups. o William Rathje’s “garbology” project in Tucson, Arizona - Studies human material culture, including both ancient artifacts and modern garbage. LINGUISTIC - Linguistics: seeks to understand human language, written and ANTHROPOLOGY non-written, spoken and non-verbal. - The study of how languages change over time is termed historical linguistics. The study of how language is used in social contexts is termed socio-linguistics  UCSP - Is the study of language in its social and cultural context across space and time BRANCHES OF A. Historical linguistics LINGUISTICS o Linguistics: Seeks to understand human language, both written and non-written, spoken and non-verbal. o Studies how languages change over time and how they may be related. o Reconstructs ancient languages and studies linguistic variation through time. B. Structural/Descriptive linguistics o Studies how contemporary languages differ, especially in their construction. - Sociolinguistics: Investigates relationships between social and linguistic variation to discover varied perceptions and patterns of thought in different cultures. o Studies how language is used in social contexts. o No language is a homogeneous system where everyone speaks exactly the same. PIONEERS IN A. Franz Boas ANTHROPOLOGY - Father of modern American anthropology. - Rejected the biological basis of racism or racial discrimination. - Advocated historical particularism: each society has a unique culture that cannot be generalized. - Promoted cultural relativism: cultures should be judged by their own values as successful adaptations to their environments. B. Bronislaw Kasper Malinowski - Polish immigrant who studied the Trobriand Islands. - Developed participant observation: anthropologists participate and blend with the way of life of the group they study. - One of the most influential ethnographers of the 20th century. C. Henry Louis Morgan - First to research aboriginal peoples of North America. - Proposed the Theory of Social Evolution: social evolution occurs in three stages—savagery, barbarism, and civilization. - once widely accepted, now the assumption of social or cultural evolution is considered ethnocentric. - “Judging other cultures according to one’s values”  UCSP D. Ruth Benedict - Authored “Patterns of Culture” and “The Chrysanthemum and the Sword” (on Japanese culture). - Studied how culture and religion shape personality. - concluded that cultures have personalities: some cultures believed in restraint, and others might believe in fierceness. - Main idea: the main personality traits of the culture become the main personality traits of persons of that culture. E. Margaret Mead - Student of Franz Boas. - Broke gender barriers in her time. - “Coming of Age in Samoa” (1928): compared adolescence in Samoa and America, concluding that adolescence is not a universally distinct or difficult stage. - Her studies in the South Pacific led her to conclude that socialization (“nurture”) is more influential in development than nature. WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? SOCIOLOGY - Latin: “Socius” meaning companion or associate and “LOGOS” meaning study or science. - Is the study of social relation that affects human behavior. AREAS OF 1. Social Organization SOCIOLOGY - this studies social groups, social institutions, social stratification, mobility, ethnic relations and bureaucracy. 2. Social Change, Social Organization and Social Disorganization - study of change in culture and social relations and the current social problems in society. These are the crime and delinquency, problems in family, population, religion, education, health, etc. 3. Social Psychology - studies human nature as the outcome of group life personality formation, social attitudes and collective behavior. 4. Human Ecology - studies the behavior of a given population and its relationship to the group’s present social institutions. 5. Population Studies - concerned with population number, composition, change and quality as they influence the economic, political, and social system. 6. Sociological Theory and Method - concerned with listing the applicability and usefulness of the principles of group life as bases for the regulation of man’s social environment. 7. Applied Sociology - applies scientific knowledge to solve problems in various fields of criminology, penology, social work, education, communication, marriage, family, etc. PIONEERS IN THE A. Auguste Comte STUDY OF - Coined the term “sociology” in 1839, initially called it “social SOCIOLOGY physics”, but Adolph Quetelet began to make statistical studies of society and call this area of endeavor social physics.  UCSP - French mathematician and philosopher, considered the “Founder of Sociology.” - Known for his six-volume work “Positive Philosophy.” - Leading proponent of Structural-Functional Theory. B. Karl Marx (1818-1883) - German philosopher, economist, and social activist. - Viewed private property and capitalism as root causes of poverty. - Believed in active societal change and saw history as a series of class conflicts between the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and the proletariat (workers). C. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) - First sociology professor at the University of Bordeaux, France. - Viewed society as more than the sum of its parts, shaping individuals in every way. - “Father of Modern Sociology.” - Individuals were exclusively the products of their social environment and that society shapes people in every possible way. - Studied suicide to illustrate societal influence, identifying types like fatalistic (society over-regulates and there is less freedom) and anomic suicide (there is too much freedom and less regulation). D. Max Weber (1864-1920) - German economist, historian, and philosopher. - Proposed that religion is a central force in social change. - Demonstrated how religious beliefs could create new economic conditions and institutions. WHAT IS POLITICAL SCIENCE? POLITICAL - “political” comes from the Greek word “polis” (city-state) and SCIENCE “science” from the Latin word “scire” (to know). - is a social science discipline focused on the state, government, and politics, including political theory, practice, and the analysis of political systems and behavior. PIONEERS IN A. Plato POLITICAL - Plato’s political philosophy, especially in “The Republic,” is a SCIENCE foundational examination of political life, focusing on justice. - He argued that only philosophers, who make unbiased decisions in society’s best interests, should rule.  UCSP B. Aristotle - In “Politics,” Aristotle argues for the supreme authority of the city, viewing it as a natural whole emerging from primitive associations like families. - While Plato is sometimes seen as the first political scientist, Aristotle is often considered the true founder due to his empirical approach. Note: Both philosophers aimed to perfect the polis (city-state), which for Greeks encompassed both society and political system. AREAS OF 1. Political Theory POLITICAL - Principles related to the basis, structure, conduct, and SCIENCE operations of the state. 2. Public Law - Laws or ordinances controlling the framework of public governance. 3. Public Administration - Academic discipline studying civil service and governance. 4. Political Dynamics - Relationship of societal forces dictating political opportunities and actions. 5. Government and Business - Regulatory and governmental functions related to corporate entities and the national economy. 6. Legislatures and Legislation - Process, composition, and organization of legislatures. 7. International Relations - Nation-states’ foreign policy and the forces shaping it. 8. International Law - Agreements and treaties outlining state responsibilities. 9. Comparative Government - Study and analysis of the general structure of governments worldwide. IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS ON CULTURE - Banaag (2012) posited that culture can function in different ways and which we can see its importance as well ❖ shapes human creativity and resourcefulness by enabling adaptation to the environment. ❖ Sets social norms and behaviors, including protocols, manners, roles, and laws. ❖ Facilitates communication through verbal and non-verbal means. ❖ Produces essential tools, technologies, and structures. Enhances the quality of life, making it more enjoyable and comfortable. ON SOCIETY - Formed through social interactions, providing human connection and interconnectedness. - Symbolizes the identity of its members. - Defines territorial boundaries. - Represents political independence and economic interdependence.  UCSP ON POLITICS - Each society has a unique political structure, focusing on government and state processes. - Each society has a unique political structure, and political science focuses on government processes. - Understanding politics involves addressing who gets what, where, when, and how, highlighting its role as a response to everyday challenges. - Collective action is often more effective than individual efforts. - The goal of political science, as noted by Lazo (2009), is to educate citizens, encouraging them to participate in and appreciate their societal duties and responsibilities: ❖ Understand theories, concepts, and principles of governance, public administration, and political dynamics. ❖ Manifest and respect the underlying principles of state policies and laws. ❖ Prepare for careers in the legal profession, government service, and other fields with high regard for legal matters and procedures. THE GOALS OF A. Anthropology ANTHROPOLOGY, - Understand individual differences and diversity SOCIOLOGY, AND - Discover human universality - Objectively observe cultural patterns POLITICAL - Generate new knowledge and theories about human behavior SCIENCE - B. Sociology: - Learn theories and principles about society - Examine social roles within society - Recognize the interdependency of all beings - Expand knowledge on sociological facts C. Political Science: - Develop civic skills and humane ideals for public participation - Study government operations - Gain intellectual resources for personal and professional growth ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON CULTURE AND SOCIETY PERSPECTIVES ON - Culture is a broad term with varying definitions and perspectives. It CULTURE encompasses all aspects of human life, making it hard to define universally. - Spencer-Oatey (2012) compiled various scholarly perspectives on culture: o Matthew Arnold (1867): Culture (or high culture) is a product of intellectual or artistic endeavors. o Kroeber & Kluckhohn (1952): Culture includes behaviors, symbols, artifacts, ideas, and values, transmitted through society. o Schwartz (1992): Culture consists of organized, learned, or created experiences and interpretations passed through generations. ASPECTS OF 1. Dynamic, Flexible, & Adaptive CULTURE - Culture changes over time, influenced by societal structure and members’ capacities to respond. 2. Shared & Contested  UCSP - Culture is enjoyed by groups living together, allowing behavior prediction but not guaranteeing uniformity. 3. Learned through Socialization or Enculturation - Culture is learned through continuous practice and social interaction, a lifelong process. 4. Patterned Social Interactions - Culture creates patterned behaviors and interactions, transmitted through socialization and enculturation. 5. Integrated and at Times Unstable - Culture must maintain integrated components to function, with language playing a key role in transmission. 6. Transmitted through Socialization/Enculturation - Socialization involves learning societal rules (Sociological Perspective), while enculturation involves adopting cultural ways (Anthropological Perspective). 7. Requires Language and Other Forms of Communication - Successful cultural transmission relies on language and other communication forms within their context. TYPES OF 1. Material Culture CULTURE - Visible parts and tangible objects. 2. Non-Material Culture - Intangible objects and invisible parts. ELEMENTS OF A. Norms: standard an expected behavior within a society. CULTURE Formal Norms: Mores – they are norms that has a firm control to moral and ethical behavior Ex. pre-marital sex, Homosexual relationships Laws – they are ordinance of reason enacted to protect the people from the bad effects of outdated mores Ex. 1987 Constitution, laws promulgated by the Philippine Government Informal Mores: Folkways or Customs – they are behaviors of less importance yet still influence our behavior. Ex. Doing “Mano Po” Practicing “Bayanihan” B. Symbols: Objects or signs that carry meaning, recognized by people who share a culture. Ex. symbol of cross refers to Christianity while crescent shape is for Islam C. Values: Culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness, and beauty. Ex. Filipino hospitality, resiliency, close-family ties, positive outlook in life and optimism D. Beliefs: Specific statements held to be true. Ex. Superstitious beliefs E. Language: Communication using words and gestures. Ex. The crossing of fingers may refer that someone is hoping for good luck but in Vietnam it represents the genitals of a female. F. Taboos: norms that are crucial to a society’s moral center, involving behaviors that are always negatively sanctioned Ex. Incest, cannibalism  UCSP THEORETICAL - Society is seen as a system of usages, procedures, authority, and PERSPECTIVES ON mutual aid, with different experts providing their perspectives. SOCIETY A. Auguste Comte (Father of Sociology) - Coined the term sociology; described society as a harmonious social organism. B. Herbert Spencer - described the emerging societies as societies of survival based on natural law; members adapt to their environment. C. Karl Marx - Societies develop through class conflicts between workers and capitalists, resolved through social revolution. D. Emile Durkheim - Society’s harmony depends on effective functioning of individuals, organizations, and institutions; dysfunction occurs if elements are not in equilibrium. E. George Herbert Mead - Focused on micro-level interactions within society, emphasizing communication through language and symbols. F. Herbert Blumer (1969) - Coined symbolic interactionism; studied human interactions and meanings ascribed to objects. G. Erving Goffman (1958) - Used dramaturgical analysis, comparing social interaction to theater, where people play roles. H. Charles Horton Cooley - Society and individuals are interconnected; introduced the looking glass self-concept, which emphasizes how individuals change their identity or personality based on how others see them. I. Morris Ginsberg - Society is a group of individuals with specific behaviors, differing from those with different patterned behaviors. J. Franklin Giddings - Society as a unified entity with organized and formal relations among interacting humans. ASPECTS OF 1. Dynamic, Flexible, & Adaptive CULTURE o Culture changes over time, influenced by societal structure and members’ capacities to respond. 2. Shared & Contested o Culture is enjoyed by groups living together, allowing behavior prediction but not guaranteeing uniformity. 3. Learned through Socialization or Enculturation o Culture is learned through continuous practice and social interaction, a lifelong process. 4. Patterned Social Interactions o Culture creates patterned behaviors and interactions, transmitted through socialization and enculturation. 5. Integrated and at Times Unstable o Culture must maintain integrated components to function, with language playing a key role in transmission. 6. Transmitted through Socialization/Enculturation o Socialization involves learning societal rules (Sociological Perspective), while enculturation involves adopting cultural ways (Anthropological Perspective). 7. Requires Language and Other Forms of Communication  UCSP o Successful cultural transmission relies on language and other communication forms within their context. ANALYZE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CULTURAL, SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC SYMBOLS AND PRACTICE AGENTS OF 1. Primary group: Family Secondary group SOCIALIZATION 2. Peer Groups: Mass Media Religion / Church Schools State / Government SOCIALIZATION - is an ongoing process of social interaction. - Through socialization, people acquire identities and skills. It involves learning from others and exposure to societal culture. - Social groups, or agents of socialization, play a key role. - Socialization helps establish identity and guides socially acceptable behavior. It enables cultural acquisition, improving individuals. - Socialization acts as a form of social control, through coercion (e.g., punishment, economy) and language as cultural symbols. SOCIOLOGIST A. Sigmund Freud VIEW ON Psychoanalytic Theory - Unconscious mind shapes behavior; self- SOCIALIZATION forms between id and superego. The influence of society happens in superego B. Jean Piaget Cognitive Development Theory - Socialization occurs in stages from infancy to adulthood. C. Lawrence Kohlberg Moral Development Theory - Moral development is a lifelong process. D. George Herbert Mead Theory of the Social Self - Self emerges from social interactions; expectations of others shape social roles. - Deviance: Behavior that violates society’s norms. - Social Control: Regulation and enforcement of norms to maintain social order. - Civil Disobedience: Violation of a law as a form of protest. - Republic Act No. 9165: Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, a law to control drug-related deviance. SYMBOLS - Philippines Museums: Showcase artifacts of scientific, artistic, cultural, and historical importance. - Major Locations: Most visited museums are in Metro Manila; notable ones in provinces too. - Top Museums: 1. National Museum (Manila): Originally a public library, transformed into the National Art Gallery. Focuses on Filipino identity, cultural heritage, and nationalism. 2. Ayala Museum (Makati): Private Museum with unique cultural and historical items, dioramas of significant events, multimedia on the 1986 People’s Power Revolution, and ethnographic artifacts.  UCSP 3. The Mind Museum (Taguig): First world-class science museum in the Philippines with five galleries covering the universe, earth, life, atoms, and technology. 4. The Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) (Pasay): and Manila provides venues for local and international productions. 5. The UST Museum of Arts and Sciences is the oldest museum in the Philippines, featuring a collection of cultural objects and artifacts. 6. Museo Pambata is a unique museum with hands-on exhibits for children, offering an alternative educational program called Children’s Advocacy Program (CAP). 7. Rizal Shrine: Located in Calamba, Laguna, this museum is a replica of Jose Rizal’s ancestral house, featuring his books, artifacts, and the coat he wore during his execution. 8. Bohol Museum: In Tagbilaran, it showcases Bohol’s artifacts, art, zoological displays, and memorabilia of President Carlos P. Garcia. 9. Clark Museum: Located in the Clark Special Economic Zone, it houses artifacts from Mount Pinatubo’s eruption and Clark’s transformation from a US Military Base. 10. Palawan Museum: Established in 1991, it displays artifacts and fossils from the Tabon Caves, highlighting Palawan’s natural and historical legacy. MAJOR 1. Symbolism is understood as well as believed. CHARACTERISTICS 2. It holds a comprehensive view and carries the value of the whole. OF SYMBOLISM 3. It translates the abstract to concrete (e.g. red light) 4. Symbol translates the complex to simple. 5. It is frontless to front. 6. Symbol introduces unknown to familiar. 7. It unveils from mysterious to understanding. 8. It stands for both good and bad. 9. It provides models to guide. SOME SYMBOLIC 1. Agni: Cosmic power of heat, light, and wisdom. WORDS IN RIG 2. Indra: Lord of Divine Mind and Action, battles evil forces. VEDA: (HINDUISM) 3. Vayu: Lord of all life energies. 4. Aswhinis: Divine physicians, cure diseases, bring bliss. 5. Mitra: Lord of Love and Harmony. 6. Varuna: Lord of infinity, opposes restrictive thinking. 7. Soorya: Source of supreme light and force. 8. Go: Cow; also, a form of knowledge. 9. Ashwa: Horse; source of vital energy. 10. Adr: Power of ignorance. OTHER SYMBOLS 1. Aum also spelled “Om”, in Hindu thought this image represents a IN HINDUISM: sacred sound. 2. Linga, this is the symbol of the god, Shiva. 3. The lotus flower represents beauty in Hinduis, and can also carry other meanings.  UCSP 4. Pratik, this symbol combines two triangles, a rising sun, and a swastika 5. Swastika, the connotations of the swastika in the Western world isn’t the same as those in the East 6. Tilak, like a bindi, a tilak is a mark on the forehead. 7. Trisula, also spelled “Trishula”, this trident is an important symbol in Hinduism. CHRISTIAN 1. Crucifix: Cross with corpus, used by Catholic, Lutheran, Orthodox, SYMBOLISM: and Anglican churches. 2. Chi Rho: Early Christian symbol, combines the first two letters of “Christ” in Greek, chi= ch and rho=r. 3. Ichthys: Greek word for “fish,” IXOYE acronym for “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” 4. Dove: Symbol of the Holy Ghost, used in Baptism and Pentecost representations. ECONOMIC - Represents economic standpoints in media like stock exchange, SYMBOLISM money, currency, gold, petroleum, life insurance, banking, and budget. POLITICAL COLOR (WORLDWIDE) SOCIAL SYMBOLS - Social Symbol: Visible indicator of social or economic status. - Clothing and Possessions: Wealthy items like cars, houses, and fine clothing.  UCSP - Societal Recognition: Uniforms and decorations indicating membership and status. - Material Possessions: Mansions, luxury vehicles, and fashionable items. - Symbol of Love: Heart symbol representing affection and love. - Symbol of Peace: Dove and olive branch, popularized by Picasso. - Symbol of Victory: “V for victory” sign from WWII, used by peace movements. - Symbol of Friendship: Handshake and yellow rose. - Symbol of Marriage: Butterfly and wedding rings. CHARACTERISTICS - Origin: The word “symbol” comes from the Greek ‘symbolon’, OF SYMBOLS meaning ‘a sign’. - Definition: Swami Swahanada describes a symbol as something that represents or recalls another thing through analogous qualities or associations. - Human Tendency: Using symbols is an innate human tendency. - Abstract Interpretation: Symbols evolved to represent abstract concepts, thoughts, virtues, beliefs, and faiths. - Artistic Use: o Artists: Painters and sculptors use symbols to depict moods and thoughts. o Poets/Writers: Use symbols to create vivid imagery in poems and sonnets. THE FILIPINO 1. Utang-na-loob: Reciprocity of gratitude within family or primary VALUES group, often emotional. (PREDOMINANT) 2. Pakikisama: Value of belongingness and loyalty, emphasizing “give and take.” 3. Hiya: Reluctance to say “no” due to shame or embarrassment. 4. Bahala na: Fatalistic outlook, relying on spirits to determine outcomes. 5. Authoritarianism: Dependence on paternalistic figures like elders, bosses, and authorities. 6. Individualism: Self-centered behavior pattern. 7. Amor-propio: Emotional reaction to protect honor and dignity when threatened. RELIGIOUS - Religious Symbols: Iconic representations of specific religions or SYMBOLS concepts within them, used in various contexts, including military chaplain symbols. - Museums and Historical Sites: Venues to appreciate and reflect on biocultural and social evolution, contributing to our understanding of humanity. CULTURAL, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION - Social organization is defined as the system of relationships between persons and among groups with regard to the division of activity and functional mutual obligations within society. - Family serves as an important universal social institution. It is the basic unit of social organization that is essential part of human society.  UCSP - Family Types: o Nuclear: Parents and children. o Extended: Nuclear family plus relatives. o Reconstituted: Spouses and children from previous marriages. - Kinship: a system of social organization which is based on recognized family ties. o Unilineal Descent: Matrilineal (female line), Patrilineal (male line) ❖ Types: Consanguineous (by blood), Affinal (by marriage), Ritual. o Bilineal (both lines). - 3 Types of Kinship: Consanguineous (by blood), Affinal (by marriage), Rituals or Compadrazgo (Godparent). - Marriage: o Monogamy: One spouse. o Polygamy: Multiple spouses, polygyny (male has multiple wives), polyandry (female has multiple husbands). - Social Influence: kinship affects politics and economy, e.g., political dynasties. o Dynasty: Succession of rulers from the same family. - Political Organization: follow certain guidelines or regulations to ensure that political processes are going smoothly. o Authority: is the concept of right to issue and, using coercive power to enforce a command. o Legitimacy: originated from the Latin word “legitimare”, meaning to declare, lawful”; According to Weber, it is the basis of every system of authority, a willingness to obey, and a belief by virtue of which persons exercising authority are lent prestige” - 3 types of authority (Webber): o Traditional: legitimated by sanctity of tradition or custom. o Charismatic: made legitimate by a leader with a mission and vision that inspires others. o Legal-Rational: made legitimate by legal rationality. It legitimacy derived from the power of the content of law. ETHNOCENTRISM AND CULTURAL RELATIVISM ETHNOCENTRISM - The belief that one’s own cultural norms, values, customs, and traditions are superior to others (Brown, 2007). - Coined by William Graham Sumner in 1906 in his work Folkways. - Viewing one’s own cultural identity as the center of everything, leading to a sense of superiority and prejudice against outsiders. - Promotes social cohesion and continuity but can rationalize attacks on other cultures or subcultures in extreme forms. - Ethnocentric Characteristics (Sumner): o Dominant cultural element seen as superior. o Rigid view of own socio-economic, political, and cultural elements.  UCSP o Own cultural elements viewed as normal and universally acceptable. o In-group norms considered universal. o Out-group ethnicities and cultures discarded. o Other cultures seen as inferior and unacceptable. - Ethnocentrism is emerging due to a complex identity from mixed cultural heritage. Indigenous culture seen as old and non-advanced. Blending indigenous culture with modern society is challenging. - Addressing Filipino Ethnocentrism (Chinof, 2016): o Identify indigenous culture reflecting Filipino identity. o Eliminate foreign influences, focus on home-grown practices. o Accept beneficial foreign influences. - Colonization by Spaniards, Americans, and Japanese shaped Filipino identity. Appreciation of foreign influences is essential to avoid alienation from the globalized world. Acknowledging these influences enriches Filipino culture. CULTURAL - Culture varies among people and rejects cultural universality. It RELATIVISM involves understanding one’s own culture from an internal perspective and not judging other cultures by one’s own standards. - Understand and respect other cultures in their own context. Example. Practices like eating insects, which may be seen differently across cultures. - Claims by Cultural Relativists (James Rachels, 2003): 1. Diverse moral conducts in each society. 2. Actions’ rightfulness determined by societal moral standards. 3. No objective standard for comparing societies. 4. Our moral code is part of a larger body of morality. 5. High tolerance for all cultures is essential. - Critical Analysis Observations: 1. Difficulty in judging other societies’ customs. 2. Right or wrong actions judged by societal standards. 3. Questionable idea of moral progress. 4. Shallow criticism of one’s own culture. 5. No concept of moral progress due to cultural acceptance. - Mutual respect and understanding are crucial for appreciating cultural diversity. Tolerance within our moral and ethical standards helps understand individual differences.