Ecosystem as a Complex System PDF

SCIENCE 11 Topic 6. Ecosystem as a Complex System Community Ecology PREDATION AND HERBIVORY This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes mus...

SCIENCE 11 Topic 6. Ecosystem as a Complex System Community Ecology PREDATION AND HERBIVORY This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. MECHANICAL DEFENSE MECHANISMS AGAINST PREDATION AND HERBIVORY a) honey locust tree (Gleditsia triacanthos) uses thorns, a mechanical defense, against herbivores, while the b) Florida red-bellied turtle (Pseudemys nelsoni) uses its shell as a mechanical defense against predators. (credit a: modification of work by Huw Williams; credit b: modification of work by Philip Jägenstedt) This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources.  MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL DEFENSE MECHANISMS AGAINST PREDATION AND HERBIVORY c) Foxglove (Digitalis sp.) produces toxin that can cause nausea, vomiting, hallucinations, convulsions, or death when consumed. d) The North American millipede (Narceus americanus) uses both mechanical and chemical defenses: when threatened, the millipede curls into a defensive ball and produces a noxious substance that irritates eyes and skin. This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. OTHER DEFENSE MECHANISMS AGAINST PREDATION AND HERBIVORY a) cryptic coloration: tropical walking stick with the coloration and body shape of a twig b) concealing coloration or camouflage: chameleon change its color to match its surroundings (credit a: modification of work by Linda Tanner; credit b: modification of work by Frank Vassen) This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. OTHER DEFENSE MECHANISMS AGAINST PREDATION AND HERBIVORY Aposematic colorations: a) the strawberry poison dart frog (Oophaga pumilio) uses aposematic coloration to warn predators that it is toxic, while b) the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) uses aposematic coloration to warn predators of the unpleasant odor it produces credit a: modification of work by Jay Iwasaki; credit b: modification of work by Dan Dzurisin) (CC-BY; via OpenStax) This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. OTHER DEFENSE MECHANISMS AGAINST PREDATION AND HERBIVORY Müllerian mimicry: when a harmless species mimics the coloration of a harmful species, as is seen with the a) hoverfly, Syrphus sp. b) wasp, Polistes sp. (credit: modification of work by Tom Ings) This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. OTHER DEFENSE MECHANISMS AGAINST PREDATION AND HERBIVORY Batesian mimicry:  several unpleasant- tasting Heliconius butterfly species share a similar color pattern with better- tasting varieties (credit: Joron M, Papa R, Beltrán M, Chamberlain N, MaváLrez J, et al.) This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE  Paramecium aurelia and Paramecium caudatum grow well individually,  when cultured together, they compete for the same resources,  P. aurelia outcompetes the P. caudatum This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP: COMMENSALISM The southern masked-weaver is starting to make a nest in a tree in Zambezi Valley, Zambia  one species (the bird) benefits, while the  other (the tree) neither benefits nor is harmed (credit: “Hanay”/Wikimedia Commons) This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP: MUTUALISM a) Termites form a mutualistic relationship with symbiotic protozoa in their guts, which allow both organisms to obtain energy from the cellulose the termite consumes. b) Lichen is produced by a symbiosis of a fungus and a photosynthetic algae living in close association (credit a: modification of work by Scott Bauer, USDA; credit b: modification of work by Cory Zanker) This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP: PARASITISM This diagram shows the life cycle of the tapeworm, a human worm parasite. (credit: modification of work by CDC) This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNITIES: BIODIVERSITY The greatest species richness for mammals in North America is associated in the equatorial latitudes. (credit: modification of work by NASA, CIESIN, Columbia University)  the number of different species in a community This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNITIES: FOUNDATION SPECIES Coral is the foundation species of coral reef ecosystems. (credit: Jim E. Maragos, USFWS)  a species which often forms the major structural portion of the habitat This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNITIES: KEYSTONE SPECIES The Pisaster ochraceus, sea star, is a keystone species. (credit: Jerry Kirkhart)  a species whose presence is key to maintaining biodiversity in an ecosystem and to upholding an ecological community’s structure This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. COMMUNITY DYNAMICS: PRIMARY SUCCESSION AND PIONEER SPECIES During primary succession in lava on Maui, Hawaii, succulent plants are the pioneer species. (credit: Forest and Kim Starr)z the first species to appear in primary and secondary succession This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. COMMUNITY DYNAMICS: SECONDARY SUCCESSION  Secondary succession is seen in an oak and hickory forest after a forest fire.  A sequence of the community present at three successive times at the same location is depicted. This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. Complex Systems Ecological Complexity  an emerging multidisciplinary field of study  utilize tools and concepts developed from the essential disciplines of Complex Systems Science (CSS), namely physics, mathematics and computer science  provides special emphasis on the relationships between pattern and process in natural systems Ecological Complexity  characterized by  local interactions between individual ecosystem components,  feedbacks between processes occurring at different scales,  amplification of minor variations in initial conditions, and the  emergence of patterns in the absence of a global controller Why ecosystems are complex? 4 PARAMETERS THAT MAKE UP A COMPLEX SYSTEM 1) Numerosity  number of elements at different hierarchy within a living system 2) Non-linearity  non-additive interactions and feedback loops over time can give us exponential relations between the input and output to systems 3) Connectivity  networks in a higher level that indicates the degree of how things flow in the network 4) Autonomy and adaptation  enables self-organization and the process of evolution that shapes complex systems on macro scale 3 Measures of Complexity in an Ecosystem 1. SPATIAL  the manner species are organized in a given geographical location  e.g. species distribution and vegetation patterns 2. TEMPORAL  time series of different variables describing the dynamics of a system This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted. Any images credited to other sources are similarly available for reproduction, but must be attributed to their sources. 3. STRUCTURAL  relationships within the ecosystem as exemplified by food web and species interaction networks agricultural monoculture undisturbed tropical rainforest recent gap in a forest What are the importance of spatial, temporal, and structural data?  Concepts of Adaptation, Survival, and Extinction in Other Disciplines FOCAL COMPLEXITY CONCEPTS OF BUSINESS ECOSYSTEM 1) Self-organization  a process where pattern and regularity emerge without the intervention of a central controller 2) Emergence  a process that creates new order together with self- organization 3) Co-evolution  a process in which interdependent species evolve in an endless reciprocal cycle 4) Adaptation  in biological usage it is the process whereby an organism fits itself to its environment  climbing peaks of higher fitness; generates structures of progressively higher performance  associated with the environment, adaptive plan  Article Ecological Systems as Complex Systems: Challenges for an Emerging Science (Madhur et al. 2010) KEY FEATURES OF ECOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY 1) Diversity 2) Cross-scale interactions 3) Ecological memory 4) Environmental variability