FPSH1014 Understanding Self and Others Topic 5 - Learning PDF

FPSH1014 Understanding Self and Others Topic 5 Learning Prepared by: Tony Ooi Presented by: Kelvin Wee Pavlov & Classical Conditioning ❑ Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936) – Russian physiologist known for his discovery of classical conditioning....

FPSH1014 Understanding Self and Others Topic 5 Learning Prepared by: Tony Ooi Presented by: Kelvin Wee Pavlov & Classical Conditioning ❑ Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936) – Russian physiologist known for his discovery of classical conditioning. ❑ Noticed that a dog salivated as soon as it saw the lab worker who customarily fed the dogs. ❑ This salivation depended on dog’s previous experiences; called it a “psychological” secretion. ❑ “Teasing” a dog with food salivation that was predictable & automatic. ❑ Classical conditioning = process by which an organism learns a new association between 2 stimuli: 1 neutral stimulus + another stimulus that already evokes a reflexive response (unconditional stimulus). Continued… Pavlov & Classical Conditioning ❑ Important Terms: i. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) = event that automatically elicits an unconditioned response. ii. Unconditioned Response (UCR) = action that the unconditioned stimulus elicits. iii. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = response that depends on the preceding conditions. iv. Conditioned Response (CR) = whatever response the conditioned stimulus elicits as a result of the conditioning (training) procedure. Continued… Pavlov & Classical Conditioning ❑ Pavlov studied this concept by experimenting on dogs: ▪ Unconditioned Stimulus = Food ▪ Unconditioned Response = Dog salivating when seeing food ▪ Neutral Stimulus = Bell ringing ▪ Conditioned Stimulus = Bell ringing every time dog sees food ▪ Conditioned Response = Dog salivating when hear bell rings (without even seeing food) ❑ Dog has been conditioned; learned that when the bell rings, there will be food salivation. Continued… Pavlov & Classical Conditioning  Examples of Classical Conditioning Example 1 ❑ You hear the sound of a dentist’s drill shortly before the unpleasant experience of the drill on your teeth. ❑ From then on, the sound of a dentist’s drill arouses anxiety. ▪ Unconditioned Stimulus = sensation of drilling on your teeth ▪ Unconditioned Response = tension ▪ Conditioned Stimulus = sounds of the drill ▪ Conditioned Response = tension Continued…  Examples of Classical Conditioning Example 2 ❑ Your brother is a good cook. He created a tasty dish that smelled very good. ❑ After having eaten it a few times, your mouth starts to salivate when you smell the dish even without eating it. ▪ Unconditioned Stimulus = food in your mouth ▪ Unconditioned Response = salivation ▪ Conditioned Stimulus = smell of the dish ▪ Conditioned Response = salivation Continued…  Examples of Classical Conditioning Example 3 ❑ You can’t stand the screeching sound made by finger nails scraping a chalkboard. ❑ Your friend decided to play a trick on you by making that sound in front of you once a day for a few days. ❑ You flinch as soon as you see your friend standing by the chalkboard. ▪ Unconditioned Stimulus = screeching sound ▪ Unconditioned Response = flinching ▪ Conditioned Stimulus = seeing your friend by the chalkboard ▪ Conditioned Response = flinching Additional Phenomena of Classical Conditioning Extinction ❑ Process that weakens a conditioned response by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. ❑ Extinction isn’t the same as forgetting; suppresses a response. ❑ Example: ▪ If bell sounded repeatedly (conditioned stimulus) without food (unconditioned stimulus) dog salivation response (conditioned response) will eventually diminish & become extinct. ❑ Dog learns that no food will come no matter how many times the bell sounded will no longer salivate (extinction). Continued… Additional Phenomena of Classical Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery ❑ Temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay. ❑ Example: ▪ After a few hours (delay), if you ring the bell again without food dog will salivate (previously extinguished response) again thinking there’s food (spontaneous recovery). Continued… Additional Phenomena of Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalization ❑ Extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli. ❑ ↑ similarity between new stimulus & conditioned stimulus more likely to show similar response. ❑ Example: ▪ Suppose a wasp stings a boy boy learns to fear wasp. ▪ Now when the boy sees anything that looks like a wasp (stimulus generalization) will be scared. ▪ However, the boy probably will not fear butterflies/other insects that don’t look like bees. Explanations of Classical Conditioning ❑ Pavlov noted that conditioning depended on the timing between Conditioned Stimulus & Unconditioned Stimulus. ❑ Pavlov: a. At the start of conditioning, activity in UCS center automatically activates the UCR center. b. After sufficient pairings of CS + UCS, a connection develops between the CS & UCS centers afterward, activity in CS center flows to UCS center excites UCR center. Operant Conditioning ❑ Operant conditioning = process of changing behaviour by providing a reinforcer after a response. ❑ In operant conditioning, the subject’s behavior produces an outcome that in turn affects the likelihood of that behavior in the future. ▪ Reinforcement – Behaviour which is reinforced (rewarded) likely be repeated. ▪ Punishment – Behaviour which is punished occur less frequently. Continued…  Reinforcers ❑ Psychologists distinguish between: ▪ Primary reinforcers ▪ Secondary reinforcers ❑ Primary reinforcers (or unconditioned reinforcers) – reinforcing because of their own properties; e.g. food, water. ❑ Secondary reinforcers (or conditioned reinforcers) – reinforcing by association with something else; e.g. money (can exchange for food/other primary reinforcers). ❑ Reinforcers don’t always have to come from outside; people can give themselves internal reinforcers; e.g. ▪ When we feel good after a job well done increase likelihood to work hard again in the future to feel good about a job well done again. Continued…  Reinforcers Types of Reinforcements ❑ Positive Reinforcement ▪ Addition of something of value to individual as a consequence of certain behaviour (i.e. praise, attention, money, food). ▪ Example: if a child gets excellent grade – praised by parents; if child values the praise continue to invest in studying (behaviour reinforced positively). ❑ Negative Reinforcement ▪ Escape from/avoidance of aversive (unpleasant) stimuli. ▪ Example: a person who dislike being woken up to the sound of an alarm clock will train herself to wake up a few minutes before the alarm sounds to avoid the aversive stimulus (behaviour reinforced negatively).  Punishment ❑ Punishment = event that decreases the probability of a response/behaviour. ❑ Reinforcement increases target behaviour; punishment decreases target behaviour. ❑ Punishment ▪ Is an aversive control whereby consequences of a certain behaviour result in a decrease of that behaviour. ▪ Can be either a presentation of something (e.g. receiving pain) or a removal of something (e.g. withholding food). ▪ Is most effective when it is quick & predictable. ❑ Uncertain/delayed punishment less effective. Continued…  Punishment Types of Punishment ❑ Positive punishment ▪ Added after behaviour to decrease frequency of the behaviour. ▪ Examples: getting a traffic summon for speeding; child who didn’t do homework being forced to stand outside the class. ❑ Negative punishment ▪ Reinforcing stimulus is removed following the behaviour to decrease frequency of the behaviour. ▪ Examples: no phone until a child clean his room; grounded from going out with friends. Additional Phenomena of Operant Conditioning Extinction ❑ Occurs if responses stop producing reinforcements. ❑ In classical conditioning, extinction is achieved by presenting the CS without the UCS. ❑ However, in operant conditioning, the procedure is response without reinforcement. ❑ Example: ▪ A child throws tantrum (behaviour/response) parents give attention to the behaviour (behaviour reinforced); if parents ignores the children’s tantrum behaviour will decreased/be eliminated (extinction). Continued… Additional Phenomena of Operant Conditioning Stimulus Generalization ❑ Stimulus generalization = tendency to respond to new stimulus in a way similar to the response to originally reinforced stimulus. ❑ ↑ similar a new stimulus is to original reinforced stimulus ↑ likely is the same response. ❑ Example: ▪ You passed by a vending machine for the first time; after initial exploration, you finally put in some money received a can of your favorite drink. ▪ Your buying behaviour is reinforced by your favorite drink. ▪ Next time when you passed by a similar looking machine likely perform the same buying behaviour. ❑ The more similar a new machine is to the original machine, the more likely you will perform the same behavior. Schedules of Reinforcement ❑ Continuous reinforcement = procedure providing reinforcement for every correct response. ❑ Simplest procedure in operant conditioning is to provide continuous reinforcement; however, in real world, this isn’t common. ❑ Intermittent reinforcement = procedure of reinforcing some responses & not others. ❑ We behave differently when we learn that only some of our responses will be reinforced. ❑ Schedules of reinforcement = rules for delivery of reinforcement. Continued… Schedules of Reinforcement ❑ 4 other schedules for the delivery of intermittent reinforcement: i. Fixed ratio ii. Variable ratio iii. Fixed interval iv. Variable interval ❑ Ratio schedule – provides reinforcements depending on number of responses. ❑ Interval schedule – provides reinforcements depending on timing of responses. Continued… Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-ratio Schedule ❑ Fixed-ratio schedule = rule that provides reinforcement only after a certain (fixed) number of correct responses. ❑ E.g. For every 5 visits & spending of RM10 at a café get a discount voucher worth RM 5. Variable-ratio Schedule ❑ Variable-ratio schedule = procedure in which reinforcement occurs after a variable number of correct responses. ❑ E.g. If you enter a lottery, each time you enter you have some chance of winning, but you can’t predict how many times you must enter before winning Continued… Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-interval Schedule ❑ Fixed-interval schedule = procedure that provides reinforcement for the first response after a specific time interval. ❑ E.g. An animal might get food for its first response after a 15-second interval. Then it would have to wait another 15 seconds before another response is effective. Variable-interval Schedule ❑ Variable-interval schedule = procedure in which reinforcement occurs after varying amounts of time. ❑ E.g. Reinforcement may come for the 1st response after 2 minutes, then for the first response after the next 7 seconds, then after 3 minutes 20 seconds... You can’t know how long before your next response is reinforced. Topic 5 Learning Part 2  Social Learning ❑ Social-learning approach = view that we learn about many behaviours by observing the behaviour of others. ❑ Example: ▪ If you want to learn to drive a car, you start by watching people who are already skilled; your observations of others facilitate your progress. ❑ Social learning – a type of operant conditioning & the underlying mechanisms are similar; we learn by: ▪ Imitating behaviours that are reinforced; ▪ Avoiding behaviours that are punished. Continued… Modeling & Imitation ❑ We learn much by observing other people’s actions & their consequences. ❑ Reasons for imitation: ▪ Other people’s behaviour often provides information. ▪ Other people’s behaviour establishes a norm/rule. ▪ Imitation occurs automatically in some cases. Continued… Bobo Doll Experiment ❑ 1960s – Albert Bandura (1925 – 2021), Canadian-American psychologist, conducted a series of experiments on observational learning known as the Bobo Doll Experiments. ❑ How the experiment works: i. 1 group of children to watch films in which an adult violently attacked a “Bobo” doll. ii. Another group watched a different film. iii. Left the children in a room with a Bobo doll. iv. Only children who watched films with attacks on the doll attacked the doll. v. Conclusion: children copy the aggressive behaviour they have seen in others. Continued… Vicarious Reinforcement & Punishment ❑ Vicarious Reinforcement = a response to an observed reinforcement as if it has happened to yourself. ❑ Involves learning through observation of the consequences of actions for other people. ❑ When learner observes someone that they identify with/role model receives reinforcement motivated to imitate the behaviour as if they had been reinforced themselves. Continued… Vicarious Reinforcement & Punishment ❑ Examples of Vicarious Reinforcement: i. A child learns to say ‘please’ and ‘thank you’ on his own because he saw his older sibling do the same and get praised for it. ii. A child eats all of his lunch in order to get dessert because he saw his older brother eat the entire meal and was given a dessert. iii. A student answers the teacher’s question because he saw one student praised by the teacher for doing it. Continued… Vicarious Reinforcement & Punishment ❑ Vicarious Punishment = a type of social learning in which people perform a behaviour less often after they've seen someone else behave that way + experience negative consequences. ❑ Vicarious reinforcement works better > vicarious punishment; most people don’t identify with those who failed/received punishment. ❑ Examples of Vicarious Punishment: i. A child talks in class teacher scolded the child harshly in front of the class the rest of the class learned from the child's behaviour & punishment, stays silent during the class. ii. You are at a red-light stop, a driver beside you decided to run the red light; you saw the driver being asked to pull over by a police officer you learn not to run the red light like the driver did. Self-Efficacy in Social Learning ❑ Self-efficacy = belief of being able to perform a task successfully. ❑ We imitate someone else’s behaviour only if we have a sense of self-efficacy. ❑ Self-efficacy reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one's own motivation, behaviour & social environment. ❑ Example: ▪ A student who has low level of self-efficacy in speaking English might avoid speaking to those who are fluent in English. ▪ A person who is good in gaming has high level of self-efficacy for most video games might sign up herself in a video game tournament. Self-Reinforcement & Self-Punishment ❑ We tend to imitate the actions of successful people, but only if we feel self-efficacy. ❑ However, to actually succeed may require prolonged efforts. ❑ People typically set a goal for themselves + monitor their progress toward that goal. ❑ Sometimes people reinforce/punish themselves as if they were training someone else. Continued… Self-Reinforcement & Self-Punishment ❑ Examples: ▪ Self-reinforcement – Rewarding yourself with a nice meal after you have successfully completed the revision for 2 chapters as you have set. ▪ Self-Punishment – Refusing to eat for several days after a person failed to achieve the ideal weight by a specific timeframe (not healthy). ❑ Self-punishment that can have lasting effects on emotional & physical health.