Learning Theory: Classical and Operant Conditioning

Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. CHAPTER PREVIEW Observational Classical...

Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. CHAPTER PREVIEW Observational Classical Health and Conditioning Learning Wellness Factors That Operant Affect Learning Conditioning Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. LEARNING THEORY Learning a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience Behaviorism Associative Learning / Conditioning Observational Learning Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. TYPES OF LEARNING Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Helps to explain voluntary behavior. Performing well in swim competition (behavior) becomes associated with getting awards (consequence). Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. TYPES OF LEARNING Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Helps to explain involuntary behavior. Control of a response [fear] is shifted to a new stimulus [office]. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Unconditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response. Unconditioned Response: A natural reaction to a given stimulus. Conditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned Response: The response caused by the conditioned stimulus. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS ns e Food Un ly (Stimulus) lea po d ate Re rn s pe ired fle ed Re e R Pa x No NS UCR Sound Drool (Stimulus 2) Learned Association (Response) CS CR Conditioned Acquisition/Learning Stimulus Neutral Stimulus Unconditioned Unconditioned Association Response InnateStimulus S-R Conditioned Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS Food Un d ly (Stimulus) lea ate Re rn pe ired fle ed e R Pa x NS UCR Sound Drool (Stimulus 2) Learned Association (Response) CS CR Contingency: Contiguity: Time CS regularly betweenfollowed CS & UCS by UCS Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS Food Un d ly (Stimulus) lea ate Re rn pe ired fle ed e R Pa x NS UCR Sound Drool (Stimulus 2) Learned Association (Response) CS CR Generalization - CRs may also appear after various new NS that are similar to the CS Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS Food Un d ly (Stimulus) lea ate Re rn pe ired fle ed e R Pa x NS UCR Sound Drool (Stimulus 2) Learned Association (Response) CS CR Discrimination - CRs appear after the CS but not after other CSs. Discrimination generally learned by presenting other CSs without the UCS Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Extinction – CR weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS – Pavlov rang bell but did not present food; the dog stopped salivating. Spontaneous Recovery – CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning. – When Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. LITTLE ALBERT EXPERIMENT UCS Bang Un dly lea ate Re rn pe ired fle ed e R Pa x NS UCR Rabbit Fear Learned Association CS CR Phobias Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. A CLOSER LOOK The participant in the experiment was a child that Watson and Rayner called "Albert B." but is known popularly today as Little Albert. When Little Albert was 9 months old, Watson and Rayner exposed him to a series of stimuli including a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, masks, and burning newspapers and observed the boy's reactions. The boy initially showed no fear of any of the objects he was shown. The next time Albert was exposed to the rat, Watson made a loud noise by hitting a metal pipe with a hammer. Naturally, the child began to cry after hearing the loud noise. After repeatedly pairing the white rat with the loud noise, Albert began to expect a frightening noise whenever he saw the white rate. Soon, Albert began to cry simply after seeing the rat. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. WATSON AND RAYNER WROTE: "The instant the rat was shown, the baby began to cry. Almost instantly he turned sharply to the left, fell over on [his] left side, raised himself on all fours and began to crawl away so rapidly that he was caught with difficulty before reaching the edge of the table." Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  LITTLE PETER Mary Cover-Jones (1924) experiment aimed to reduce a child's fear of rabbits by gradually exposing him to them while simultaneously providing a positive association through the presence of enjoyable activities, leading to successful desensitizati on. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Bullyin UCS Un d ly g lea ate Re rn pe ired fle ed e R Pa x NS UCR School Fear Learned Association CS CR Friend Fun Counterconditioning - Goal: Associate CS with new, incompatible CR - Means: Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill CS Education. All paired rights with new reserved. No reproduction UCS or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Ad UCS Un d ly Actors lea ate Re rn pe ired fle ed e R Pa x NS UCR Product Fun Learned Association CS CR Application Advertising Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Medici UCS ne in Un d ly lea ate Pill Re rn pe ired fle ed e R Pa x NS UCR Pain Relief, Pill immune Learned Association response CS CR Application Placebo Effect - immune and endocrine responses Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS Drug Un ly lea Effect e d at d Re rn e p ire fle ed e R Pa x NS UCR Drug Body Paraphern Counterac alia Learned Association ts Drug CS CR Application Drug Tolerance / Habituation Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND ADDICTION As applied to substance abuse, repeated pairings between the emotional, environmental, and subjective cues associated with the use of substances and the actual physiological and phenomenological effects produced by specific substances lead to the development of a classically conditioned response. Subsequently, when the substance abuser is in the presence of such cues, a classically conditioned withdrawal state or craving is elicited. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS Illness Un lea Re rn e d fle ed ir x Pa NS UCR New Nausea Taste Learned Association CS CR Application Taste Aversion Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. OPERANT CONDITIONING Better explains voluntary behaviors. The consequences of a behavior change the probability of that behavior’s occurrence. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. OPERANT CONDITIONING Thorndike’s Law of Effect – consequence strengthens or weakens an S – R connection B.F. Skinner – expanded on Thorndike’s work – shaping (reward approximations of the desired behavior) Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement increases behavior. Positive Reinforcement – behavior followed by rewarding consequence – rewarding stimulus is “added” Negative Reinforcement – behavior followed by rewarding consequence – aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed” Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement increases behavior. Positive Reinforcement Teacher praises Behavior Turn homework in on time Negative Reinforcement Teacher stops criticizing What is the effect on the behavior? Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement increases behavior. Positive Reinforcement Skis go faster Behavior Wax skis Negative Reinforcement People stop zooming by on slope What is the effect on the behavior? Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement increases behavior. Positive Reinforcement Great music starts playing Behavior Press an odd button on dashboard of friend’s car Negative Reinforcement Annoying music stops playing What is the effect on the behavior? Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement increases behavior. Behavior Avoidance Reinforcement Avoid negative Negative stimulus stimulus never occurs What is the effect on the behavior? Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. REINFORCEMENT Learned helplessness: an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes Behavior Failure To Reinforce All kinds of attempts Nothing Works Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. TYPES OF REINFORCERS Primary Reinforcers – innately satisfying – Events or stimuli that satisfy physiological needs basic to survival. Secondary Reinforcers – become satisfying through experience – repeated association with a pre-existing reinforcer – token economy – “ GOOD JOB” (Social approval) Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. TYPES OF REINFORCED BEHAVIOR Generalization – stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response – responding occurs to similar stimuli Discrimination – stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery – behavior decreases when reinforcement stops Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Continuous Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement – fixed – variable – ratio – interval Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforcement follows a set # of behaviors. For example, if you were to get a 5,000 pesos bonus for every 10 sales you closed, you would be operating on a fixed- ratio reinforcement schedule. This schedule can be effective for learning new behaviors, but motivation tends to slow after the reinforcement is distributed. Subjects are most likely to perform the behavior when they are really close to getting that reinforcement. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  VARIABLE RATIO (VR) reinforcement follows an unpredictable # of behaviors (e.g., an average) Example: Gambling is the most classic example of this type of reinforcement. Maybe you win the jackpot after one turn at the slot machines, or 50, or 500, or 5,000 turns. After you win the jackpot, that number will change. This schedule, as any gambler knows, can be highly effective. A subject may keep completing the behavior over and over again, just waiting for that reinforcement. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Fixed Interval (FI) reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after a set amount of time has elapsed. For example, if you were to give your teenager the keys to the car at 5 p.m. every night, provided they got all of their homework done for the weekend, you would be working on a fixed interval reinforcement schedule. Subjects are likely to perform the behavior closest to the time when the reinforcement is distributed – meaning your teenager is likely to rush through their homework starting at 4:30. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI) Reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed. Example: A pop quiz or a surprise visit from the health inspector are both examples of variable interval reinforcements. If the subject has performed the behavior (studying or keeping the restaurant clean) when the time comes, they will receive reinforcement and will, over time, be encouraged to continue performing that behavior. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  PUNISHMENT Punishment decreases behavior. Positive Punishment – behavior followed by aversive consequence – aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added” Example: Scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class. In this case, a stimulus (the reprimand) is added in order to decrease the behavior (texting in class). Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT – behavior followed by aversive consequence – rewarding stimulus is “removed”. Example: When a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. REINFORCEMENT Punishment decreases behavior. Positive Punishment Allergic reaction Behavior Negative Reinforcement Take aspirin for Headache goes headache away Negative Punishment Lose sympathetic What is the attention of spouse effect on the behavior? Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. REINFORCEMENT Punishment decreases behavior. Positive Punishment Get pulled over and ticketed Behavior Negative Reinforcement Lose gangster who Show off by speeding had been tailing you Negative Punishment Lose $250 to pay What is the ticket effect on the behavior? Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. OPERANT CONDITIONING AND ADDICTION An alcohol-dependent person who drinks to feel more social and less anxious or a cocaine abuser who gets high to overcome depression is using substances in an instrumental way. To the extent that they experience the effects they seek, the greater the likelihood they will use substances under similar circumstances in the future. Presumably, people continue to abuse substances even in the face of negative consequences (e.g., legal, marital, or health problems) because these consequences are quite removed in time from the point of use; also, the more immediate positively reinforcing effects of the substance typically override consideration of such consequences. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. OPERANT CONDITIONING Timing of Consequences – immediate versus delayed reinforcement – immediate versus delayed punishment Applied Behavior Analysis – behavior modification Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior (modeling). Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory Four Processes of Observational Learning – attention – retention – motor reproduction – reinforcement Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  FOUR PROCESSES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 1. Attention If a person is going to learn anything from someone else, they must be paying complete attention to the person and the behaviors they are exhibiting. There are a few factors that affect a person's ability to focus and give their full attention: Physical similarities: Observers sometimes pay more attention to others who are of the same sex or similar age. Prestige: Observers are more likely to be influenced by people they see as attractive, successful or distinguished. Health: If an observer is ill or tired, they may not be able to focus completely on the subject they're observing. This can impact their ability to later imitate the behavior they learned. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  2. Retention The second stage of observational learning is the ability to retain the information learned through observation. A distracted or unfocused learner is less likely to remember what they learned. If this happens, they might need to go back to stage one and witness the behavior again in order to model or avoid it. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  3. Reproduction The third stage of learning is the ability to reproduce the behavior they learned through observing and retaining the information. They may need to recreate the behavior multiple times before completing it successfully. Age or physical attributes: the learner must try to replicate the action before they are physically able to accomplish it. Ability level: The child's motor skills must be fully developed to the level of ability. Difficulty of learned behavior: If the action is challenging, it may take more time and effort for the learner. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  4. Motivation Motivation is the learner's desire to learn the behavior they observe. If someone observes a behavior but has no motivation to retain the information, they're less likely to reproduce it. There are a few motivating factors that can inspire someone to model or avoid a certain behavior. For instance, you can offer rewards to encourage positive behaviors and penalties to discourage negative behaviors. (reward and punishment) Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING Do cognitions matter? Does learning involve more than environment-behavior connections? Purposive Behavior in Humans – goal directed – goal setting – self-regulation and self-monitoring Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING Expectancy Learning information value Latent Learning/Implicit Learning (Edward Tolman)  Incidental learning Insight Learning (Wolfgang Köhler) Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.  LATENT LEARNING/IMP LICIT LEARNING It is important because in most cases the information we have learned is not always recognizable until the moment that we need to display it. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. OTHER FACTORS IN LEARNING Biological Constraints – instinctive drift – preparedness Cultural Influences Psychological Constraints – mindset: fixed vs. growth Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. OTHER FACTORS IN LEARNING: CRITICAL CONTROVERSY Learning Styles – visual, aural, kinesthetic – Research suggests there is no actual advantage to instruction within one’s preferred style. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. LEARNING AND HEALTH AND WELLNESS Factors influencing degree of stress – predictability of stressor – control over stressor – improvement of (reduction in) stressor – outlets for frustration Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education. CHAPTER REVIEW Describe learning. Explain classical conditioning. Explain operant conditioning. Understand observational learning. Describe the role of cognition in learning. Identify biological, cultural, and psychological factors in learning. Describe how principles of learning apply to health and wellness. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of 6- McGraw-Hill Education.