Mohammad Ayub Khan's 1958-1969 Presidency PDF

Topic 21 Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan 1958 to 1969 Born on 14 May 1907 Son of a Risal Dar Major Mir daad Khan Read in Aligarh College. Joined the Indian Army in 1928 Fought against the Japanese in Burma in WWII In 1951 he became the first Pakistan...

Topic 21 Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan 1958 to 1969 Born on 14 May 1907 Son of a Risal Dar Major Mir daad Khan Read in Aligarh College. Joined the Indian Army in 1928 Fought against the Japanese in Burma in WWII In 1951 he became the first Pakistani Commander in chief Ayub Khan announced that he hoped that a period of military rule would settle Pakistan Died April 19, 1974, near Islamabad. POLITICAL/CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS: 1959 Basic Democracies: The first step in Ayub Khan’s constitutional reforms came with the introduction of the Basic Democracies order on 26 Oct. 1959. That was 4 tier system in which ordinary people elected union council members, who in turn elected Tehsil councillors then the district and divisional members. Later it was stated in the 1962 constitution that the 80,000 elected Basic Democrats would also form the Electoral College for the election of the president and members of the central and provincial legislatures. At the end of 1959, Ayub asked the basic democrats for a vote of confidence in him and on 17 Feb. 1960 he was confirmed as president. He then announced the creation of a constitution commission to make recommendations for a new constitution. The 1962 Constitution: The new constitution was announced on 1 March 1962. Ayub described it as combining “democracy with discipline”. In reality it set up a presidential form of government. History Handouts prepared by Dr. Usman Hameed 03224557967 Page 1 It stated that: (i) The president could not be removed unless impeached (accused). (ii) The president nominated the cabinet from the members of the national assembly. (iii) The president nominated the heads of the judiciary and the provincial governors. (iv) The national legislatures could not pass a law without the approval of the president. (v) Both Urdu and Bengali were recognized as two of the national languages. (vi) The national assembly session was to be held in both Dhaka and Islamabad. (vii) If the president were from West Pakistan then the speaker of the national assembly was to be from East Pakistan. The new constitution was introduced without debate and Ayub brought Martial law to an end soon afterwards. The new National Assembly met for the first time on 8 June 1962. The first act was to remove the ban on political parties. Ayub’s reforms had increased the powers of the ruling elite. Major landlords dominated the elections. The constitution also further upset the people of East Pakistan. They felt that Pakistan’s government was in the hands of military and civil officials from West Pakistan. Election of 1965: In Jan 1965 elections were held for the presidency. Ayub Khan was nominated by a new party, the Convention Muslim League He believed that the opposition parties were too divided to put up a credible opponent in the elections. He was however wrong, the opposition parties all agreed to support the sister and advisor of the Quaid, Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah. In the election Ayub Khan won 64 % of the votes, compared to Miss Jinnah’s 36 %. Results were challenged by the opposition who claimed that the voting had been rigged. Riots began in Karachi and East Pakistan in which 20 people were killed. History Handouts prepared by Dr. Usman Hameed 03224557967 Page 2  Ayub khan had been reelected. A New capital: Since partition the capital had been Karachi. In 1959 the site of Islamabad was chosen to replace Karachi as the Capital of Pakistan. In 1967 Islamabad was officially made the capital. Work on the city’s principal buildings, streets, and facilities continued and was completed by the mid-1970s. It is a modern and carefully planned city. The city is divided into 8 largely self-contained zones. Agricultural reforms / the Green Revolution: An experiment of small subsistence holdings had never been efficient. A law was passed saying that no farm could be smaller than 12.5 acres or larger than 500 acres (irrigated) or 1000 acres (unirrigated). This meant that many smaller farmers found their land was redistributed. However the resulting larger farms did produce a steady rise in food output. Big landlords were forced to find tenants for parts of their land and this too raised productivity as the tenants and smaller farms were often more efficient than the larger , poorly run farms. Four dams were built to help irrigation. Loans were also given to farmers to build wells. Productivity was further increased due to mechanization. Social and Educational Reforms: New curriculum for schools and new textbooks were published. The government began an extensive literacy programme, building new schools and colleges. Ayub Khan appointed General Azam Khan as the Rehabilitation Minister to settle 75,000 refugees in newly built dwellings near Karachi. Laws were passed that factory owners had to provide accommodations for their workers at a reasonable rent. Family Planning Programs were also launched (funded by America) History Handouts prepared by Dr. Usman Hameed 03224557967 Page 3  Medical facilities were also improved. Medical and Nursing schools were also set up to increase the number of doctors and nurses. Ayub Khan took action to prevent people from hoarding goods and selling them on the black market at inflated prices. Profiteers had their goods confiscated and many were arrested. As a result this action brought down the prices of many goods. He also fixed the price of milk and other goods to stop profiteering, which also helped families to manage their weekly budget better. Women’s rights benefited too from reforms affecting divorce and marriage. Marriages and divorces now had to be registered and further marriage approved by a court. The minimum age of marriage for females became 16. INDUSTRIAL REFORMS: Industrial development was also considered. This was carried out with the help of loans from more industrialized Western countries.(USA, Germany, UK) In 1962 an oil refinery was established in Karachi and a Mineral Development Corporation set up for the exploration of mineral deposits. In 1964 an Economic union was formed with Iran and Turkey, the Regional Cooperation Development (RCD) (to develop ties in Trade, Commerce and industry). An Export Bonus Scheme was set up offering incentives to industrialists who increased exports. The average annual rate by which the economy grew in 1960 was 7 %, three times that of India. But the new wealth created, did little to benefit the large numbers of Pakistanis living near the poverty line. It was revealed that just 22 families controlled 66 % of Pakistan’s industrial assets. The same families also controlled 80 % of Pakistan’s banking and insurance companies. A small elite group of wealthy Pakistanis had almost complete control of Pakistan’s wealth. All these families belong to West Pakistan. Industry was improving rapidly but Pakistan was increasingly dependent on foreign aid. History Handouts prepared by Dr. Usman Hameed 03224557967 Page 4  Political unrest and downfall of Ayub: In 1965 Pakistan went to war with India over Kashmir. Neither side was able to win a decisive victory. Ayub told the people that Pakistan had won the war but the peace treaty at Tashkent contained no reference to how the Kashmir issue should be settled. It was to regain that disputed Kashmir territory that Pakistan had started the war. ZAB blamed Ayub for losing the war and also criticized the Tashkent agreement. Ayub sacked the foreign Minister, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Bhutto now became a focal point for opposition to Ayub. By 1968 many people were discontented with the government. It seemed to be undemocratic as there were numerous accusations of intimidation and vote rigging in the elections for the Electoral College and the presidential elections. The economy was improving yet only a few people were benefiting from this. Agricultural production was rising but food prices were also increasing. Ayub decided to celebrate the achievements of his ten years as head of state by declaring it “A Decade of Development”, but this didn’t end the growing opposition. In October 1968, there were student protests all over West Pakistan. On a visit to Peshawar Ayub was the target of a failed assassination attempt. When Ayub carried out widespread arrests, including Bhutto, there were more protests, which spread to East Pakistan. Ayub Khan’s repressive policies succeeded in uniting the various parties that opposed him. In Jan. 1969 eight of them formed the Democratic Action Committee. They wanted proper election, the lifting of emergency powers and autonomy for East Pakistan. On 17 Feb. 1969 Ayub Khan withdrew the emergency powers and released many political prisoners arrested in the previous Oct of 1968. He began negotiating with the opposition, but he had done too little too late. The opposition rapidly gained support whilst he and his party rapidly lost it. By March 1969 he realized that he didn’t have enough support to stay in power. On 25 March 1969 he resigned. But he didn’t call for new elections to choose another president. Instead he handed over power to the army and for the second time in its short history Pakistan experienced martial law. OTHER REASONS Concentration of political power in his own hands. Dictatorial powers of the President: people want a parliamentary form of democracy Hold of military hierarchy in policy-making Disqualification of politicians and political parties under Elective Bodies Disqualification Order (EBDO). History Handouts prepared by Dr. Usman Hameed 03224557967 Page 5  Control of Press and Media under Press and Publication (Amendment) Ordinance: Pakistan Times, Imroz, and Mashriq were placed under the National Press Trust. State of emergency. Strength of Convention Muslim League was false Opposition of One Unit by the small provinces. Exaggerated claims about development in the ceremonies News of his illness in early 1968. Rumour that he was going to appoint Gohar as his successor. Withdrawal of military support: Reduction on Armed Forces’ in budget of 1967-68 Agartala Conspiracy Case (separation of East Pakistan from West Pakistan with the armed aid of India) against Mujeeb and a band of civil and military officers in Jan. 1968. Slogan: ‘Gheraoo, Jalaoo’. Burnt govt. offices and ministers' houses. FOREIGN POLICY OF AYUB KHAN: Ayub Khan expressed his foreign policy on several occasions, particularly in his autobiography, Friends Not Masters. He sought to improve, or normalize, relations with Pakistan's immediate neighbours--India, China, and the Soviet Union. While holding and renewing the alliance with the United States, Ayub Khan emphasized his preference for friendship, not subordination, and bargained hard for higher returns to Pakistan. Other than ideology and Kashmir, the main source of friction between Pakistan and India was the distribution of the waters of the Indus River system. After independence, India constructed several multipurpose projects on the eastern tributaries of the Indus. Pakistan feared that India might repeat a 1948 incident that curtailed the water supply, A compromise that appeared to meet the needs of both countries was reached during the 1950s; it was not until 1960 that a solution finally found favour with Ayub Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru. The Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 was backed by the World Bank and the United States. Broadly speaking, the agreement allocated the use of the three western Indus Rivers (the Indus itself and its tributaries, the Jhelum and the Chenab) to Pakistan, and the three eastern Indus tributaries (the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej) to India. Ayub initiated to have formal relations with China. This began with the construction of KKH. Eventually, agreements on trade, Chinese economic assistance and grants of military equipment, which were later thought to have included exchanges in nuclear technology also began. China's diplomatic support and transfer of military equipment was important to Pakistan during the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War over Kashmir. China's new diplomatic influence in the UN was also exerted on Pakistan's behalf after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Ayub Khan's foreign minister, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, is often credited for this China policy, which gave Pakistan new flexibility in its international relationships. The Soviet Union strongly disapproved of Pakistan's alliance with the United States, but Moscow was interested in keeping doors open to both Pakistan and India. Ayub Khan was able to secure Soviet neutrality during the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War. Ayub Khan was the architect of Pakistan's policy of close alignment with the United States, and his first major foreign policy act was to sign bilateral economic and military agreements with the United States in 1959. Nevertheless, Ayub Khan expected more from these agreements than the United States was willing to offer and thus remained critical of the United States' role in South Asia. He was vehemently opposed to simultaneous United States support, direct or indirect, for India's military, especially when this assistance was augmented in the wake of the Sino-Indian War of 1962. The 1965 war began as a series of border flare-ups along un-demarcated territory at the Rann of Kutch in the southeast in April and soon after along the cease-fire line in Kashmir. The Rann of Kutch conflict was resolved by mutual consent and British sponsorship and arbitration, but the Kashmir conflict proved more dangerous and widespread. In the early spring of 1965, UN observers and India reported increased activity by infiltrators from Pakistan into Indian-held Kashmir. Pakistan hoped to support an uprising by Kashmiris against India. No such uprising took place, and by August India had retaken Pakistani-held positions in the north while Pakistan attacked the Chamb sector in southwestern Kashmir in September. Each country had limited objectives, and neither was economically capable of sustaining a long war because military supplies were cut to both countries by the United States and Britain. On September 23, a cease-fire was arranged through the UN Security Council. In January 1966, Ayub Khan and India's Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri, signed the Tashkent Declaration, which formally ended hostilities and called for a mutual withdrawal of forces. The Tashkent Declaration was the turning point in the political fortunes of the Ayub Khan administration. History Handouts prepared by Dr. Usman Hameed 03224557967 Page 6  REVIEW OF PAST PAPERS QUESTIONS: Question No.1: Explain why the period of Ayub Khan’s government 1958-69 is called the Decade of Progress? (10)June 99 Q.4 b Question No.2: Which of the following contributed the most to Pakistan’s domestic policies: Liaquat Ali Khan Ayub Khan Zia ul Haq Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above. (14) June 2001 Q.4c Question No.3: Why was Martial Law declared in 1958? (7) Nov.2002 Q.4 b Question No.4: Which of the following was the most important contribution of ayub Khan’s government during the Decade of Development between 1958 and 1969. Agricultural and economic reforms Constitutional reforms Foreign policy? Explain your answer with reference to all three above. (14) Nov.2003 Q.4 c Question No.5: Why was Martial Law declared in 1958? (7) Nov.2004 Q.4 b Question No.6: Constitutional Reforms were the most important of Ayub Khan’s domestic policies during the decade of development between 1958 and 1969. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. (14) June 2005 Q.5 c Question No.7: Why did Ayub declare Martial Law in 1958? (7) Nov.2006 Q.5 b Question No.8: Ayub Khan’s agricultural reforms were more successful than any of his domestic policies between 1958 and 1969. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. (14) Nov 2007 Q.4 c Question No.9: Why were the years 1958-1969 called the Decade of Progress? (7) June 2010 Q. 5 b Question No., 10: What was the Basic Democratic System of Ayub Khan? (4) Nov 2011Q.4 a Question No.11: Constitutional reforms were the most important of Ayub Khan’s domestic policies during the ‘Decade of Progress’ between 1958 and 1969.’ Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. (14) June 2012 Q. 5 c Question No. 12: Why was Martial Law declared by Ayub Khan in 1958? (7) Nov.2012 Q.4 b Question No. 13: Were the social reforms of Ayub Khan the most important of his domestic policies during the ‘Decade of Progress’ between 1958 and 1969? Explain your answer. (14)June 2014 Q.4 c Question No. 14: Why was Islamabad chosen as the new capital of Pakistan? (7) May June 2015 Q. 4 b Question No. 15: Explain why Ayub Khan introduced Martial Law in 1958. (7) June 2016 Q. 4 b Question No. 16: What were the Basic Democracies? (4)June 2017 Q. 4 a Question No. 17: Who was Fatima Jinnah? (4) June 2020 5 a Question No. 18: Explain why Ayub Khan came to power in 1958. (7) Oct 2020 Q. 4 b History Handouts prepared by Dr. Usman Hameed 03224557967 Page 7 Question No. 19: ‘Ayub Khan’s agricultural policies were the most effective of the domestic reforms that took place between 1958 and 1969.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. (14)June 2021 Q. 4 c Question No. 20: A: This question is about Muhammad Ayub Khan’s rule, 1958–69. Study the sources (insert) carefully and then answer the questions which follow. Oct/Nov. 2022 Q. 1 Source A Fatima Jinnah, campaigning for the Presidency of Pakistan in 1964, said that the government of Ayub Khan had created feelings of uncertainty, intimidation and discontent. ‘Don’t be afraid, be willing to work hard and contribute so that all of Pakistan can thrive, everyone can become prosperous and future generations can live freely in a society which values them and their efforts’, she declared. Adapted from an American newspaper, 1964 (A) According to Source A, what did Fatima Jinnah wish for the people of Pakistan? (B) What can we learn from Source B about the relations between Pakistan and the USA in the early 1960s? A photograph showing President Muhammad Ayub Khan in the White House, 1961. The White House is the official residence of the US President President Muhammad Ayub Khan is in the Centre of the photograph President Muhammad Ayub Khan is looking at the man standing on his right-hand side they are in the White House they are smiling/happy/casual there are two different flags they are all wearing suits and ties the man on the left has his right hand in his jacket pocket Valid inference relations are good/positive/friendly they (Pakistan and USA) want to work together/they are supportive/cooperative relations are relaxe d relations are formal/business-like relations appear to be on an equal footing Contextual knowledge the President (Kennedy) and the Vice-President (Johnson) of the USA are on either side of President Muhammad Ayub Khan they are standing in the Oval Office, the President’s personal office, at the heart of American government President Muhammad Ayub Khan was considered the ‘architect’ of good relations between the USA and Pakistan he hoped to persuade the USA to increase military/economic assistance to Pakistan he also hoped to gain support from the USA on Kashmir this meeting was followed up by a visit of the First Lady of the USA/Jacqueline Kennedy to Pakistan in 1962. C: Explain why General Muhammad Ayub Khan came to power in 1958. D: To what extent were the years 1958 to 1968 ‘A Decade of Development’? Explain your answer. History Handouts prepared by Dr. Usman Hameed 03224557967 Page 8  Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 was a culmination of skirmishes that took place between April 1965 and September 1965 between Pakistan and India. The conflict began following Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir against Indian rule. India retaliated by launching a full-scale military attack on West Pakistan. The seventeen-day war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armoured vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II. Hostilities between the two countries ended after a United Nations-mandated ceasefire was declared following diplomatic intervention by the Soviet Union and the United States, and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration. Much of the war was fought by the countries' land forces in Kashmir and along the border between India and Pakistan. This war saw the largest gathering of troops in Kashmir since the Partition of British India in 1947. Most of the battles were fought by opposing infantry and armoured units, with substantial backing from air forces, and naval operations. Many details of this war, like those of other Indo- Pakistani Wars, remain unclear. India had the upper hand over Pakistan when the ceasefire was declared. Although the two countries fought to a deadlock, the conflict is seen as a strategic and political defeat for Pakistan, as it had neither succeeded in insurrection in Kashmir nor had it been able to gain meaningful support at an international level. Fatima Jinnah Fatima Jinnah (31 July 1893 – 9 July 1967) was a Pakistani dental surgeon, biographer, stateswoman, and one of the leading founders of Pakistan. After obtaining a dental degree from the University of Calcutta in 1923, she became a close associate and an adviser to her older brother Muhammad Ali Jinnah. A strong critic of the British Raj, she emerged as a strong advocate of the two-nation and a leading member of the All-India Muslim League. She remained the closest confidant of her brother until his death. After his death, Fatima was banned from addressing the nation until 1951; her 1951 radio address to the nation was heavily censored by the Liaquat administration. She wrote the book My Brother, in 1955 but it was only published 32 years later, in 1987. Jinnah came out of her self- imposed political retirement in 1965 to participate in the presidential election against military dictator Ayub Khan. She was backed by political parties and despite political rigging by the military, won two of Pakistan's largest cities, Karachi and Dhaka. Jinnah died in Karachi on 9 July 1967. Her death is subject to controversy, as some reports have alleged that she died of unnatural causes. Her family members had demanded an inquiry; however, the government blocked their request. She remains one of the most honored leaders in Pakistan, with nearly half a million people attending her funeral in Karachi. She is also referred to as Māder-e Millat ("Mother of the Nation"). Question: Why did Ayub declare Martial Law in 1958? In 1956, the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan approved a constitution that ended Pakistan's status as an independent Dominion of the British Empire, to create the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Maj. Gen. Iskander Mirza, the last Governor General of Pakistan, simultaneously became the state's first president. However, the new constitution was followed by political turmoil in Pakistan, which saw a succession of four prime ministers - Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, Hussein Shaheed Suhrawardy, Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar and Sir Feroz Khan Noon - in two years. There was already a precedent in Governor General Malik Ghulam History Handouts prepared by Dr. Usman Hameed 03224557967 Page 9 Muhammad dismissing prime ministers, and many viewed Mirza as manipulating the constitution and starting dismissals of governments. The One Unit scheme amalgamating the provinces of Pakistan into two wings - West Pakistan and East Pakistan - was politically controversial and proving difficult to administer. The quick succession of prime ministers fostered the view within the military and in the public that Pakistani politicians were too weak and corrupt to govern effectively, and that the parliamentary system was weak. On October 7, President Mirza declared martial law in Pakistan. He abrogated the constitution of 1956, describing it as "unworkable" and full of "dangerous compromises." He dismissed the government of Sir Feroz Khan Noon, dissolved the National Assembly of Pakistan and the provincial legislatures. Mirza also proceeded to outlaw all political parties. He appointed General Ayub Khan, the Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistani army as the Chief Martial Law Administrator and nominated him to become the new Prime Minister of Pakistan, charged with administering the country. On October 27, Iskander Mirza resigned from the presidency, transferring it to Ayub Khan. Both men saw the other as a rival to their respective positions. Mirza believed his position had become largely dismissed after Ayub Khan assumed most executive powers as chief martial law administrator and prime minister, and acted to assert himself, while Ayub Khan thought Mirza was conspiring against him. It is widely held that Ayub Khan and the generals loyal to him forced Mirza to resign. Mirza was later taken to Quetta, the capital of the province of Baluchistan, before being exiled on November 27 to London, England, where he resided until his death in 1969. Question: Why was Islamabad chosen as the new capital of Pakistan? (7) Islamabad was located at a better place. Ayub wanted to be closer to the army's command headquarters (GHQ) in Rawalpindi in the northern Punjab which he considered vital in times of martial law. Also, he got closer to Punjab and the NWFP (KPK) that provided the bulk of troops for the armed forces of Pakistan. He could see a visible influence of the commercial districts of Karachi on many of the government officials. Many of them had official duties. The development of Karachi as they started taking interest in trade instead of their d port and the capital city had left northern Pakistan relatively underdeveloped. Ayub wanted to shift the power base from the industrially and commercially developed south to the Punjab in the north. Karachi has a warm and humid climate whereas Islamabad is located at the Margalla hills near Murree with a pleasant climate suitable for working. It was an abandoned place where it was easier to build a planned city with a desired layout. Karachi had become overburdened with growth of buildings and population due to a large-scale influx of refugees from India and rural-urban migration. The existing state buildings in Karachi were not adequate to meet the needs of a modern capital. Karachi's location on the Indus Delta Coast made it vulnerable to attacks by the Indian Navy. In such a case. There was a fear of a huge cost of reconstruction if it was destroyed by the Indians in case of a war. Islamabad, being a landlocked city, was at a reasonable distance from the Pak-India border and was a much better option. Therefore construction work was continued in the 1960s and the capital was officially shifted to Islamabad in 1967. 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