Memory Processes: How Does Your Memory Work PDF

TOPIC 2: MEMORY - HOW DOES YOUR MEMORY WORK? What is memory ? Memory is a crucial cognitive function that allows us to encode, store, and retrieve information over time. Understanding how memory works can be compared to understanding how a computer processes data. How does memory Work 1. Inpu...

TOPIC 2: MEMORY - HOW DOES YOUR MEMORY WORK? What is memory ? Memory is a crucial cognitive function that allows us to encode, store, and retrieve information over time. Understanding how memory works can be compared to understanding how a computer processes data. How does memory Work 1. Input: Similar to a computer receiving data through input devices, the human brain receives information through the senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell). Example: Just as a computer uses a keyboard or mouse to receive data, the human brain receives information through the senses. For instance, seeing a friend's face (sight), hearing a song (hearing), feeling the texture of an orange (touch), tasting a lemon (taste), or smelling a rose (smell). 2. Encoding: The brain processes and interprets sensory input, turning it into meaningful electrochemical signals. This includes: Acoustic Encoding: Transforming sounds into memory, such as remembering the tune of "Happy Birthday." Visual Encoding: Converting visual images into memory, like recalling the color and shape of your favorite t-shirt. Semantic Encoding: Converting the meaning of information into memory, such as understanding and remembering the definition of a complex term like photosynthesis. 3. Storage: Once encoded, information is stored in the brain. Storage can be short- term or long-term, with memories potentially lasting from a few seconds to a lifetime. Example: After encoding, information is stored in the brain similarly to data saved on a computer hard drive. For example, storing the steps of a recipe you learned recently. 4. Retrieval: Accessing and bringing stored memories back into consciousness. This is often triggered by cues or deliberate eQort. Example: Like searching for a file on a computer, retrieving a memory might involve recalling the recipe when starting to cook. 5. Output: The use of retrieved information in performing tasks or behaviors.  Example: Using retrieved information, such as following the remembered recipe to bake a cake, is akin to printing a document from a computer. What are the types of Memory Sensory Memory: The initial, temporary storage for sensory information, lasting only a few seconds. Example: Remembering the brief flash of a camera's light bulb. Short-term Memory (STM): Holds information temporarily for analysis and either discards it or moves it to long-term memory. Example: Keeping a phone number in mind just long enough to dial it. Long-term Memory (LTM): The continuous storage of information. Unlike STM, the capacity of LTM is believed to be unlimited. Example: Remembering your childhood address. Explain Memory Systems: Atkinson & ShiQrin’s Model Developed by Richard Atkinson and Richard ShiQrin in 1968, this model describes three stages of memory: 1. Sensory Register: Where sensory information enters memory. Example: Noticing the smell of coQee in the morning. 2. Short-term Memory: Where information is held briefly for processing. Example: Calculating a tip at a restaurant involves using STM to hold and manipulate numbers. 3. Long-term Memory: Where information is stored indefinitely. Example: Recalling a cherished childhood vacation. Key Terms Processing: Operations performed on sensory information in the brain. Interference: One memory competes with or replaces another memory; a cause of forgetting. Amnesia: Loss of memory often caused by brain damage or psychological trauma. Explain what can aQect memory and bring about forgetting? Interference: When some memories compete with others, leading to forgetting. Example: Learning Italian may interfere with your previous knowledge of Spanish due to similarities between the two languages. Amnesia: Typically results from brain injuries or trauma, aQecting the ability to recall past experiences or form new memories. Example: Someone with amnesia might forget events that occurred before or after an incident, such as a car accident. What are the types of amnesia? a. Retrograde Amnesia Retrograde amnesia refers to the loss of memory for events that occurred before a specific trauma or injury that caused the amnesia. This type of amnesia impacts the ability to recall information that was known prior to the event. Symptoms: Inability to remember past personal experiences (episodic memory). DiQiculties in recalling general knowledge learned before the onset of amnesia (semantic memory). The extent of memory loss can vary; some may forget years of memories, while others may only lose memories from the recent past. Anterograde Amnesia: Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories following a traumatic event, despite being able to recall past events that occurred before the trauma. This aQects the ability to retain new information after the onset of amnesia. Symptoms:  DiQiculty in learning new information or forming new memories. Repeated questions or statements due to the inability to remember recent conversations or events. Short-term memory loss, where the individual can interact normally in the present but may not remember the interaction later. Explain the process of active process of memory through the Theory of Reconstructive Memory (Bartlett, 1932), The Theory of Reconstructive Memory, proposed by Frederic Bartlett in 1932, suggests that memory is not a passive process of retrieval but an active process of reconstruction. Bartlett proposed that people reconstruct memories based on personal biases, knowledge, past experiences, and cultural backgrounds. This theory highlights the role of schemas in memory processing. How Schemas are Used in Memory Schemas are mental frameworks that help individuals organize and interpret information. Schemas are developed from past experiences and cultural knowledge and play a crucial role in how memories are encoded, stored, and retrieved. Usage in Memory Process: Encoding: Schemas influence what information is noticed and how it is processed. Information that fits into existing schemas is more likely to be encoded eQiciently. Storage: Schemas help in organizing stored data, making it easier to retrieve relevant information when needed. Retrieval: During memory recall, schemas fill in gaps in the available data to complete a coherent memory. This can sometimes lead to distortions if the schema is inaccurate or if the fit between the schema and the actual memory is poor. Strengths of Reconstructive Memory Theory Explains Inconsistencies: The theory accounts for the variations and inconsistencies often seen in eyewitness testimonies, as people may reconstruct memories based on their existing schemas. Cultural Relevance: It emphasizes how people’s backgrounds and cultures aQect their recall, showing that memory is subjective and influenced by personal context.  Flexibility in Memory: Demonstrates that memory is adaptive and can be modified to fit new information or interpretations, which can be beneficial in navigating complex social environments. Weaknesses of Reconstructive Memory Theory Lack of Specificity: Critics argue that the theory is too broad and lacks specificity in predicting when and how distortions in memory will occur. Research Challenges: Some of the experimental methods used to study reconstructive memory, such as the use of storytelling or unfamiliar material, may not accurately reflect how memory works in real-life situations. Overemphasis on Distortion: The theory might overemphasize the distortion of memories, ignoring cases where people recall events accurately. It sometimes underestimates the reliability of memory, which can be quite accurate under certain conditions. Overall, Bartlett’s Theory of Reconstructive Memory provides a useful framework for understanding how memories are not just retrieved but actively reconstructed, influenced by an individual's prior knowledge and experiences. This approach has profound implications for understanding cognitive processes and for practical applications such as in legal settings with eyewitness testimonies. Explain the Multi-store Model of Memory (Atkinson and ShiQrin, 1968) Multi-store Model of Memory (MSM) posits that memory consists of three distinct stores: the sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Each store has a unique capacity, duration, and function. A. Sensory Register Function: Captures vast amounts of sensory information from the environment for a very brief period. Capacity: Very large, can hold a lot of information. Duration: Very short; information lasts for about 0.5 seconds for visual stimuli (iconic memory) and up to 3-4 seconds for auditory stimuli (echoic memory). B. Capacity of Short-Term Memory Capacity: Limited, typically can hold 7±2 items according to Miller's (1956) research. How to Measure: Often assessed through tasks like digit span, where individuals repeat back a sequence of numbers. C. Duration of Short-Term Memory Duration: About 18-30 seconds without rehearsal. Research Support: Peterson and Peterson (1959) showed that STM duration is very short unless the information is actively rehearsed. D. Capacity of Long-Term Memory Capacity: Essentially unlimited. Evidence: Studies show that people can retain large amounts of information over many years, especially if it has personal significance. E. Duration of Long-Term Memory Duration: Can be from several minutes to a lifetime. Research Support: Bahrick et al. (1975) found that people could recall classmates' names and faces even after 34 years. F. Role of Attention in Memory Function: Attention is the gateway through which information moves from the sensory register to short-term memory. Importance: Only information that is attended to is processed further; unattended information is lost. G. Role of Rehearsal in Memory Function: Rehearsal helps to maintain information in STM and aids in transferring it to LTM. Types of Rehearsal: o Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition of information to keep it in STM longer. o Elaborative Rehearsal: Associating the information with other knowledge in LTM, which helps in long-term storage. What are the Strengths of the Multi-store Model of Memory Clear Structure: Provides a straightforward and easy-to-understand model of how memory works. Empirical Support: Supported by early memory research, such as studies by Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) on the serial position eQect.  Educational Applications: Useful for understanding diQerent learning strategies that can enhance memory, such as chunking for STM and elaborative rehearsal for LTM. What are the Weaknesses of the Multi-store Model of Memory Oversimplification: May be too simplistic; suggests that all types of memory processing follow a linear path, which is not always the case. Passive View of Memory: The model views memory as somewhat passive and does not account for cognitive processes like thinking, understanding, and interpreting. Focus on Structure Over Process: While it describes the architecture of memory well, it does not adequately explain how these processes interact dynamically. STUDIES RELEVENT FOR THE TOPIC OF MEMORY 1. Bartlett (1932) - "War of the Ghosts" Aim: Frederic Bartlett aimed to investigate how memory of a story is aQected by previous knowledge and cultural background, and to demonstrate that human memory is reconstructive rather than reproductive. Procedure: Bartlett asked participants from England to read a Native American story called "The War of the Ghosts" which contained unfamiliar and unusual concepts to them. Participants were asked to recall the story several times over varying periods that extended up to several years. Findings (Results and Conclusions): Results: Bartlett found that as the participants tried to recall the story over time, their reproductions became shorter, more coherent, and more conventional. The story was altered in a way that made more sense to the participants based on their own cultural backgrounds and expectations. Conclusions: Memory is not just a straightforward retrieval of information but is influenced by an individual's cultural and social background, leading to distortions and changes in the remembered story. Strengths:  Innovative Approach: Introduced the concept of reconstructive memory, highlighting the active role of cognition in recalling. Cultural Influence: One of the first studies to consider the impact of culture on memory, emphasizing memory’s subjective nature. Weaknesses: Lack of Control: The procedure was relatively informal, with no standard method for measuring how the story was recalled. Subjective Interpretation: The findings depend heavily on personal interpretation, both by the participants and the researcher, which may introduce bias. 2. Peterson and Peterson (1959) - Short-term Retention of Individual Verbal Items Aim: To investigate the duration of short-term memory, and specifically how long information remains in the short-term memory without the benefit of rehearsal. Procedure: Peterson and Peterson asked 24 psychology students to remember a trigram (a set of three consonants, e.g., CXP) for varying retention intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, or 18 seconds. During these intervals, participants were asked to perform a distracting task (counting backwards in threes from a specified number) to prevent rehearsal. Findings (Results and Conclusions): Results: The results showed a rapid decline in the ability to recall the trigram after just a few seconds. After 3 seconds, participants could recall about 80% of trigrams correctly. This fell to just about 10% after 18 seconds. Conclusions: Short-term memory has a limited duration when rehearsal is prevented. The findings suggest that without rehearsal, information stored in short-term memory decays quickly. Strengths: Controlled Environment: The use of a controlled experimental method allowed for clear, quantifiable results. Repeatability: The standardized procedure makes it easy to replicate the study, which is a crucial criterion for scientific research. Weaknesses:  Artificiality: The task of memorizing trigrams is quite artificial and does not necessarily reflect everyday memory usage, which may limit the ecological validity of the findings. Participant Variables: The study used a small, homogenous sample of psychology students, which may not be representative of the general population. 2.3 Issues and debates 2.3.1 Understand the reductionism and holism debate, including: A. What is the definition of reductionism and reductionist approaches? Reductionism in psychology is the approach that breaks down complex behaviors and mental processes into their simplest forms. It typically involves reducing a complex phenomenon to its constituent parts in order to understand and explain it. Reductionist approaches often look for the most fundamental explanations possible. In psychology, this might mean explaining behaviors and mental processes in terms of biological mechanisms, such as brain structures or neurochemical imbalances. Examples in Memory Research: Studies focusing on specific neurotransmitters involved in memory formation, like acetylcholine, exemplify a reductionist approach. By isolating the chemical processes that facilitate memory, researchers attempt to explain memory in terms of biological functions. The Multi-store Model of Memory (Atkinson and ShiQrin, 1968) can be viewed as reductionist because it breaks down the memory process into distinct, linear stages (sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory), each with specific characteristics and functions. B. Holism and Holistic Approaches Definition: Holism in psychology refers to the approach that considers human behavior and mental processes as integrated and indivisible wholes. Holistic approaches argue that behaviors and mental processes cannot be fully understood simply by examining their parts; instead, they must be viewed within the context of larger psychological and environmental systems.  Holistic approaches often consider the physical, mental, social, and emotional dimensions of individuals as interconnected and influencing one another. Examples in Memory Research: Research on the eQects of stress and emotion on memory illustrates a holistic approach. These studies examine how individuals’ memories are influenced by their emotional states and environmental contexts, recognizing that memory cannot be fully understood outside of these broader factors. Bartlett's Theory of Reconstructive Memory (1932) is also holistic because it emphasizes how personal and cultural contexts shape memory reconstruction, suggesting that memories are influenced by complex interactions among past experiences, current expectations, and socio-cultural factors. Explaining the Reductionism and Holism Debate Using Human Memory Reductionism and Holism in Memory Studies: Reductionism: Researchers might study how specific areas of the brain, like the hippocampus, are involved in memory encoding and retrieval, or they might look at how particular genes influence memory skills. This approach is powerful for identifying biological underpinnings but may overlook how broader social or emotional contexts impact memory processes. Holism: Conversely, holistic approaches might focus on how memories are influenced by cultural narratives or personal relevance, such as how individuals remember shared historical events diQerently based on their cultural backgrounds. This approach acknowledges the complexity of memory as influenced by a multitude of factors that cannot be fully understood in isolation. Conclusion The reductionism vs. holism debate highlights a fundamental philosophical divide in psychology about how best to understand human behavior and mental processes. While reductionist approaches provide clarity and precision through simplification, holistic approaches oQer a more comprehensive understanding by considering the complexity of human life. Both approaches have their merits and limitations, and often, a combination of both provides the most robust insights in psychological research, particularly in the study of human memory.