O Level Pak Studies 2059/02 Topography and Climate PDF
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This document contains learning outcomes for a Geography course related to the topography and climate of Pakistan. It covers aspects like identifying geographical features and understanding the impact of climate on human activities.
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+92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com LEARNING OUTCOMES! MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Candidates should be able to identify the following on a map: th...
+92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com LEARNING OUTCOMES! MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Candidates should be able to identify the following on a map: the Tropic of Cancer, latitudes 30°N, 36°N, longitudes 64°E, 70°E and 76°E the Arabian Sea the countries sharing a border with Pakistan, and Pakistan’s position in relation to others in South and Central Asia the administrative areas of Pakistan named cities: Islamabad, Muree, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, Sialkot, Peshawar, Chitral, Gilgit, Hyderabad, Karachi, Quetta and Gwadar. named landforms: Balochistan Plateau, Sulaiman Range, Safed Koh, Potwar Plateau, Salt Range, Hindu Kush, Karakoram and Himalaya mountain ranges named rivers: Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Kabul, Hab and Dasht named deserts: Thar, Thal and Kharan. Candidates should be able to: use the appropriate vocabulary when describing the distinguishing features of mountains, plateaux, floodplains and deserts (knowledge of the formation of the natural topography of Pakistan is not required) identify and name the above features on a photograph or drawing understand the influence of the natural topography on human activities: – steep slopes and flat land on the way that the land is used – mountains and deserts on the road and rail networks know the distribution of temperature and rainfall, including monsoon, depressions and convectional rain know seasonal and regional variations, and the factors contributing to them, including depressions, thunderstorms and cyclones (typhoons) understand the causes of the monsoon (knowledge of the causes of other types of rain is not required) describe and explain the characteristics of the climate of the arid, semi- arid, humid and highland regions, including seasonal variations know the influence of latitude and longitude on day length and climate understand the influence of the climate (both the benefits it brings and the problems it causes) on the economy and on the lives of the people: – the OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com influence of low temperature, ice and snow on the lives of people in the MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON mountains – the influence of rain storms and flooding on agriculture, industry and communications – the problems caused by drought and shortage of water supply on agriculture and industry. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON ARABIAN SEA OTHER COUNTRIES OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com CITIES OF PAKISTAN MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com LANDFORMS AND DESERTS MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com RIVERS OF PAKISTAN MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com DEFINITIONS MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Alluvial material: material brought by river. Alluvial terrace or bar: central high area of doab which has mature type of soil (fine loamy). It is 10 to 15 meters high separated from old flood plain by a slope called scarp or bluff. Alluvial fans: are found along foot of Kirthar Mountains in Sindh. During rainy season hill torrents (sudden flow of water) bring lot of silt, sand, gravel and rock material. At foot hill torrent slowdowns and deposit the material. Torrent split in many channels spread over 2 to 4 miles forms a sharp of Chinese fan called alluvial fans. Alluvial cone: an alluvial fan with steep slope. Basin: Natural or artificial depression in land like wash basin. Braided channel: a steam with a wide, shallow channel split in two or more channels due to hurdle in the path. Split channels merge (join) again. Boulder: any large, detached, generally rounded mass of rock. Catchment area: the total area drained by a river and its tributaries. Doab: The land between two adjacent rivers is known as doab or interfluves. Drainage: The natural runoff (flow) of water from an area by streams and rivers. Delta: is the mouth of the river. River is divided into number of distributaries (channels) before joining sea called delta. Glacier: A large mass of snow over huge area formed by consolidation of snow falling. Gradient: slope. Gully: a narrow channel set up in earth by the action of water. Gorge: a rocky walled, steep (sharp) sided deep narrow river valley. Hamun: Shallow salt lake with inland drainage found in Balochistan Plateau. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Levees: are naturally built river bank by slow deposition of silt along sides. MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Meander: curves in the natural course (path) of a river known as meander. Mangrove swamp: trees grown in tidal mud in delta. Oxbow lake: The small horse shoe shaped lake which is formed by the separation of a meander form its main stream is known as oxbow lake. Plateau: is large stretch of highland which is practically at the same height above sea level. It descends on all sides to lower land. Pass: a route over or through mountain. Ravine: a small, narrow valley with steep sides, larger than a gulley. Rugged: uneven, rough and irregular surface. Relief: is the degree of unevenness or land form. River bed: the channel in which river flow. River basin: all area drained by river. Runoff: all the water flowing from drained area. Flow of water. Silt: fine particles larger than clay. Shale: a fine grained sediment rock formed largely by hardening of clay. Swamp: wet and spongy land saturated with water. Terrain: an area of land in respect of its physical characteristics or conditions. Tributary: a stream or river flowing into large river. Tidal flat: an area of sand or mud uncovered at low tide. Undulating: wavy form of land. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com NORTHERN MOUNTAINS MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON The Northern Mountains are divided into three main mountain ranges; the Karakoram, Himalayas and the Hindu Kush. The Karakoram runs from South East to North-West. They have an average height of 6000m. The Himalayas run from South-East to North-West and have an average height of 4000m. The Hindu Kush runs from North East to South West with an average height of 5000 Karakoram Range The Karakoram Range runs from 400 km from Hunza to Shyok River. The Karakoram Range is 200 km wide. The range runs in east-west direction. The average height of Karakoram Range is 6000 metres. K-2 (8610metres) is the highest peak of Karakoram Range. The range has deep, narrow valleys are sharp peaks covered with snow and glaciers. Siachen and Biafo are the main glaciers. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Himalayas Range MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Himalayas are in the south of Karakoram Range. They run East to West. The Himalayas is divided in Pakistan in three sub parallel ranges the great or high Himalayas, the lesser Himalayas and the sub-Himalayas. The Great Himalayas The great Himalayas: also known as central Himalayas mostly lie in Kashmir. The average height of Himalayas is 6000 meters. Highest peak is Nanga Parbat (8126meters). Rupal is longest river. Satpara is largest lake of region. The river Indus River has set up a number of gorges (narrow valley) in its path. The peaks of central Himalayas are snow capped and steep-sided with large glaciers. Lesser Himalayas The lesser Himalayas: are located south of the great Himalayas. Lesser of lower Himalayas are of medium height 1800 to 4500 meters. Lesser Himalayas are of special interest to tourist; Hill stations like Murree, Ghora Gali, Nathia Gali are located in lesser Himalayas. No glacier is found in this region. Sub-Himalayas The sub-Himalayas or Siwaliks are the southernmost mountain of Himalayas located near Attock. They are low in altitude 600 metres to 1200 metres. They are located near Attock. Hindu Kush The Hindu Kush range lies on north and north-west border of Pakistan. This range runs in north-south direction. Average altitude (height) of the Hindu kush range is 5000 metres. Trich Mir (7690m) is highest peak of range. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com High, steep (sharp), sided valleys with narrow floor are one of feature of MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Hindu kush range. Important passes of the range are Shandur pass connects which Gilgit and Chitral. Lawari pass connects chitral to swat and Peshawar Valley. Shangla pass connects Swat valley to upper Indus pass. The Hindu Kush range is bare (empty) of vegetation. Some forest lie in Swat, Chitral and Dir valleys are located in the range. Life of People and Economy Northern Mountains have steep slopes, high peaks; deep gorges, rugged (rough) landscape, several steams and glaciers restrict (limits) human movement. Little land is available. Small scale agriculture is done on terraced (stepped) field. In summer livestock and tourism are source of income. Some hydro-electric projects are set up on rivers. Indoor activities like carpet making and embroidery (needlework) are carry out in winter because land is covered with snow. Drainage Pattern River Indus and its tributaries is main feature of drainage pattern. River Indus starts from Mansrowar Lake in Karakoram. Indus River passes through Hindukush joined by river Kabul and Swat. After passing from dissected gorges enter in plain areas at Kalabagh. Tributaries (branches) of Indus such as Jhelum, Chenab, Sutlej and Beas starts from Himalayas passes through Kashmir and enter plain areas and join Indus at Mithankot. Gilgit Agency Area Gilgit agency covers extreme northern part of Pakistan. It is a mountainous region covered by Karakoram Range. River Indus flows through it. In the south of river Indus located Himalayas range with average altitude (height) of 6000 metres. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com High land comprises (made) of steep (sharp) sided parallel ranges, sharp MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON sided ridges, peaks covered with snow, huge glaciers are located in Karakoram and Himalayas. River Gilgit and river Hunza flows from north and join Indus. Area is marked with cold winter and snow falls. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com WESTERN MOUNTAINS MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON This region consists of the mountain ranges, namely; the Waziristan hills, the Safed Koh range, the Sulaiman range and the Kirthar range Waziristan Hills Waziristan hills are located between rivers khurran and Gomal along Afghan border are highly mineralized. Hills have no vegetation. Hills rise up to 3513 metres. Bannu town is located in these hills. Safed Koh Safed koh range is located in the south of river Kabul in east-west direction. It has height up to of 4712 metres. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Sikeram is the highest peak. MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON It has snow capped lime stone ridges (peaks). It form barrier on Pak-Afghan border. Sulaiman Range Sulaiman range: is located towards west of river Indus. Range is 400 km long and 20 to 25km wide. Highest peak is Takht-i-Sulaiman (3383metres). Lime stone and sand stone are the main minerals of area. Range separate Indus plain from Balochistan plateau. Kirthar Range Kirthar range is located in the west of river Indus in Sindh and Balochistan plateau. Range rises up to 2174 meters and is bare of vegetation. Hub and Lyari are main rivers of Kirthar range. Life of People and Economy Rugged (rocky) landscape is a hurdle in development of infrastructure and transport net work. Canal system cannot be set up due to mountainous landscape (land). Range is bare (empty) of vegetation can only support nomadic way of livestock. Mineral deposits are unexplored (unfound) due to poor road network. Only valleys like Peshawar, Kohat and Bannu are very much populated. Drainage Pattern The Safed Koh range is drained by River Kabul, which runs in an West to East direction and eventually joins River Indus The Waziristan hills are drained by small seasonal rivers like Kurram, Tochi and Gomal. These rivers run from West to East, and all are the Western tributaries of the River Indus The Sulaiman range is drained by small hill torrents and small seasonal rivers such as the Bolan and Mula. These rivers usually lead to small inland lakes, where the water collects and then dries up (for example the lake Damas) OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com The rain falling on Eastern slopes of Sulaiman range runs down the slopes and MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON falls into piedmont plains leading to the formation of alluvial fans OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com BALUCHISTAN PLATEAU MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Topography Balochistan Plateau has a height varying from around 600m to around 3000m It has deep narrow valleys like Quetta They have bare rocks due to lack of rainfall The mountains have steep slopes and none are snow capped. There are parallel ranges running in an East to West direction for example the Chagai Hills, Raskoh Range, and Makran Coastal Range are all parallel ranges Parallel ranges running North-South direction are Central Brahui and the Hala range Drainage In the Southern part of the Balochistan Plateau, the River Dasht and River Porali flow from north to South, thus eventually draining into the Arabian Sea. Both are seasonal rivers; they flow only during the rainy season. In Central Balochistan, water either drains into inland lakes known as Hamuns or is absorbed into the ground, if not, it evaporates. Dry lakes known as Hamun exist (like Hamun-i-Mashkel). They are formed when seasonal rivers flow into them during the rainy season. A Hamun is a sort of depression on the Earth’s surface. In Northern Balochistan, River Zhob flows from southwest towards northeast. It eventually meets the River Gomal, which is a western tributary of the River Indus. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com POTWAR PLATEAU MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Topography Height ranges from 305 to 610m and represents a region of badland topography. The hills have steep slopes and are badly dissected, faulted and folded. Many residual hills are present, a feature left by the last Ice Age due to retreating glaciers. Ravines (shallow, steep sided narrow valleys) are present between ridges (elevated pieces of land that run for some distance). Ravines are formed due to the erosion of soft rock by flowing water over a long period of time Furrows (shallow long running ditches) are formed by the flow of rainwater. Overtime the land becomes deeply dissected as the substantial flow rainwater (during heavy downpour) enlarges the furrows into gullies (deep long running ditches) Drainage River Soan drains much of Potwar Plateau. It runs from North-East to South-West and eventually drains into the River Indus. Other small rivers are also present but all are active in the rainy season. These rivers have meanders (curves in the path of a river) because they have to flow around small hills Alluvial plains have also formed along the rivers due to seasonal flooding and the consequent deposition of silt by the river Salt Range Average height of salt range is 750 meters to 900 meters. The Skesar peak is 1527 meters high. Range runs in east-west direction. Range covers most of Jhelum, Chakwal, Kalabagh and Mianwali districts. South slope of range is steep and other is gentle. Salt range is collection of several parallel ranges which are folded and faulted. Sand stone and shale rocks are commonly found. Salt range is also rich in rock salt, gypsum and lime stone. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com INDUS PLAIN MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Doab The land between two rivers. Active Flood Plain It is a flat plain on both sides of a river, which suffers annual floods during the rainy season. It is around 2-3m above the level of a river. It is around 10-20km long. The river always changes its position, thus meanders have come into existence. Abandoned (dry) and braided channels are also visible in the dry season. Meanders, oxbow lakes and embankments of a river can be seen as well. Soils of loam and silt (Alluvial Soils), which are good for farming, are present in both the UIP and LIP. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Old Flood Plain MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON It is higher than active flood plain around 5m higher than river level. It is around 10-20m long. It is made up of old alluvium. Evidence of meanders and of levees is present in these plains. Oxbow lake depressions can also be seen. The old flood plains are present in both UIP and LIP. Bars (alluvial Terraces) These are flat areas which are only found in the Upper Indus plain. They are 7—12m high and last for 25-35km. They are made up of areas of silt and clay. In Pakistan all the bars have a south west direction. It is highest place on doab safe from floods. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Scarp MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Scarp is a slope which separates the old flood plain from the bar upland. It is around 20m long and 11m high above the river level. It is made when old alluvium on the bar upland is eroded, thus, leaving a slope which connects both old flood plain and the bar upland Upper Indus Plain In the upper Indus plain there are doabs (a doab is a land between two rivers) e.g. Bari Doab. Bars (alluvial terraces) are also present, which are 7- 12m high e.g. the Nilli and Ganji Bars. The rivers keep on changing their course slightly (meanders). There are levees along the river bed, which help contain the river. Active flood plains are present alongside the river; these are low lying areas of flat land, which are annually flooded in the rainy season. The active flood plain is made up of new alluvium The old flood plains are also present. They are flat areas, which are higher than active flood plains. They are made up of old alluvium, which had been deposited a decade ago. They’re flooded after a decade or so, when strong monsoon winds combine with the heavy melting of snow and ice in the glaciers of the Northern Mountains. Piedmont plains are found at the foothills of the Himalayas in the Salt Range. They are formed by the deposition of material by hill torrents, when they lose their speed. Kirak Hills exist between the River Chenab and Jhelum Lower Indus Plain The Lower Indus Plain principally differs from the Upper Indus Plain due to presence of a tidal delta (the Indus Delta) and also because in the Lower Indus Plain only one river that is, the river Indus, flows. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Indus delta exists in some of the southern parts of the Lower Indus Plain. A MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON delta is a low lying triangular area which has alluvial deposits. Here the river divides into distributaries before entering a larger body of water (in this case the Arabian Sea). The delta exists because of the deposition of material carried by the river. This happens because when the river enters into the sea, it loses its speed and thus also loses its ability to hold this material, which is therefore deposited at the mouth of the river. In the lower Indus Plain, we may find limestone ridges which are known as cuestas, a few examples being; Rohri and Gango Takar Cusetas. Oxbow lakes are also present in the lower Indus plain. Active and Old Flood Plains are also present, but a doab and alluvial terraces are absent. Meanders however are present too. Piedmont Plains are present at the foothills of Kirthar and Sulaiman Mountain ranges. Part of the Indus plain that extends into Balochistan is known as the Kachi Sibi Plain. Both these plains have rolling sand dunes (Thal and Thar deserts), flat plain areas, have some low lying hills, oxbow lakes and meanders etc. The main differences are the number of tributaries and distributaries (delta) in both the plains, how much water each of the plain contributes to the Indus River system (The Upper Indus Plain contributes more towards the volume of water in the form of rain etc). The Upper Indus Plain is also a bit higher than the low lying Lower Indus Plain. Considering the altitude of these two plains, we see that it decreases from North towards the South generally. Drainage of Indus Plain The Lower Indus plain is drained by the River Indus mainly flowing in the North-South direction. Meanders and oxbow lakes also exist. Piedmont plains exist in-between the river Indus and Sulaiman and Kirthar Mountain ranges. In the Upper Indus plain, River Indus and its Eastern tributaries flow in North- South direction. Tributaries are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. Meanders and oxbow lakes also exist. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com DESERTS MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON A desert is a place that receives very low amount of precipitation (less than 250mm). It is an area that can support almost no vegetation. Deserts can be cold as well as hot (have a high rate of evapotranspiration). Pakistan has 3 main deserts; the Thal, Tharparkar and the Kharan desert, all of which are hot deserts Thal is found in Punjab between Jhelum and Indus Rivers. Tharparkar is divided into 3 parts; Cholistan is found in Southern Punjab, Nara in Eastern Sindh and Thar in the South East of Sindh. Kharan is found in Western Balochistan. Topography There are strips of soil found between sand dunes along with the sandy plains. Sand dunes shift grain by grain due to the pattern of the blowing wind. Sand dunes sometimes reach a height of 150m, and are both longitudinal and latitudinal in direction. All of the sand dunes are crescent shaped. When the wind blows away the top cover of sand away, bare and weathered rocks are exposed onto the surface OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com WEATHER MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity. CLIMATE Climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time (30 years etc) FACTORS AFFECTING TEMPERATURE Angle of Sun Temperature is dependent either directly or indirectly on the influence of the sun. As it is evident the Polar Regions or regions far away from the Equator are generally cooler than the ones nearer the Equator. This is because for solar radiation to reach the poles and heat them it has to travel a larger distance in space, thus it loses its intensity (energy). Also near the poles the radiation arrives at an oblique angle so solar energy spreads over a large area. Since Pakistan lies in subtropical areas it does receive most of intense solar radiation concentrated on a small area thus the temperature in general is warmer. So in general terms Faisalabad will be cooler than say Hyderabad OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Influence of large water bodies MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Water has a high specific heat capacity as compared to land, meaning that water has to absorb more heat to have an increase in temperature as compared to land. Thus land gets hotter quickly than sea etc. Since the land gets hot quickly, the air over it also absorbs heat and gets less dense. This hot air rises and creates a low pressure. The sea on the other hand absorbs less heat and moist air over it gets less hot. Thus it is denser as compared to the air over land and doesn’t rise as much as the air over land does, which results in the persistence of high pressure over the sea. Winds travel from high pressure area to low pressure area, thus in this case wind blows from sea towards land. This is known as a sea breeze, which is cool and moist On the contrary at night when there is no solar radiation, the land looses heat quickly and air over it gets cooler and denser. The sea retains its heat and air over it is generally hotter and less dense. So a land breeze occurs when wind blows from land to sea During the summers, the land is much hotter than the Arabian Sea, thus convection currents of air are setup. Cool air from sea flows inland thus regulating the temperature and making summers a bit cooler than it would have been without the influence of the sea In winters, the sea retains its warmth and thus cold air from coastal areas flows towards sea. To replace the air in coastal areas whose rising has created a low pressure, dry warm air from interior Sindh and Punjab flowstowards the coast, thus making winters less cold than they would have been without the influence of the sea If an area doesn’t experience moderating affect of sea then it has a continental climate, which is characterized by hot summers and cold winters. USUALLY THOUGH NOT ALL THE TIMES, most of the rainfall in these continental climate areas occurs in the winters OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Altitudes MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Altitude also has a big impact on the average temperatures experienced by an area. The solar radiation is a short-wavelength radiation, which does not heat the atmosphere directly when it passes through it. This is because it is poorly absorbed by the air particles (gases and water vapours). Instead the atmosphere is heated from the bottom by long-wave radiation from the earth's surface. The Earth’s surface reflects the short wavelength radiation as long wavelength radiation. This long wave radiation is better absorbed by gas molecules and water vapours as compared to the short wavelength radiation. The temperature of the atmosphere decreases with increase in altitude, as short wavelength has to pass its heat to a lot of air particles to transfer heat to the high altitude areas. Also as the altitude increases the amount of atmosphere decreases (air gets thinner and thinner), thus there are less gas molecules and water vapours present to absorb the long wavelength radiation. Thus overall a smaller proportion of the total heat energy is passed on to the higher parts of the atmosphere On average dry air loses around 9.8 °C per every Km rise in height, meanwhile moist air loses around 10 °C for every Km rise in height Valley Most of the sun’s rays are blocked from reaching the lower parts of valleys due to the presence of mountains, which surround the valley. This lowers the average temperatures of these valleys, as less solar radiation reaches the surface of the valley to be reflected and then absorbed. Cloud Cover Temperatures decrease when clouds appear and block out the Sun’s rays, which are then reflected back into space. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com However cloud formation only takes place when air contains sufficient MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON moisture and has been sufficiently cooled. Thus cloudy days are much cooler than sunny days during the same months. However cloudy nights are hotter than cloudless nights because the clouds trap heat inside the Earth’s surface. This heat is easily radiated back to space when no clouds exist but when they do exist this heat is reflected back onto the Earth’s surface. These two reasons help us explain why a day in desert is very hot 50°C but night is cool/cold 5°C MONSOON RAINFALL Monsoons are seasonal winds that blow from sea towards land from July to August (summers). After it they reverse their direction and blow from land towards the sea (winters). During the summers due to the high angle of sun, Punjab and Sindh plains get heated up, thus an area of very low pressure develops here as the hot air rises. There are two monsoon systems, one originating from the Bay of Bengal and other from the Arabian Sea. During summer low air pressure is developed over Pakistan. While high air pressure prevails over sea (Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea) so moist (humid/wet) wind from Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea blow towards land to fulfill the low air pressure. Wind from Indian Ocean reaches Pakistan after crossing India called primary monsoon. Monsoon winds from Arabian Sea are called secondary Monsoon which causes less rain. These winds cause rain from July to September. The amount of rain decreases from northern area to Southern areas. Monsoon of Bay of Bengal affect northern Punjab, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir On the other hand another monsoon system that originates in Arabian Sea also travels inland but doesn’t bring significant rainfall to areas of Sindh because of a temperature inversion layer OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com WESTERN DEPRESSION MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON These are wind systems that originate from the Mediterranean Sea and travel eastwards towards Afghanistan and Pakistan. Since they make a long journey they lose most of their water when they reach Pakistan. During the winters (Late November to March) they bring rainfall because during winters the Arabian Sea retains its warmth and thus cold air from coastal areas flows towards sea. The flow of air from coastal areas creates a low pressure, thus dry colder air from interior Sindh and Punjab flows towards the coast. To replace the low pressure formed in Punjab and Sindh plains, these western depressions move from high pressure area (Mediterranean Sea) towards the low pressure area (Indus Plains) CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL Convection rainfall occurs when the sun heats up the land. The air near the land absorbs heat by conduction, and thus gets less dense and rises. The moisture in air condenses to form clouds, and when this air is cooled to a certain minimum level rainfall occurs THUNDERSTORM Thunderstorms occur in the same fashion as convectional rainfall with the main difference being that the air here rises very quickly forming Cumulonimbus clouds, which are very tall and big. This is followed by strong winds, lightning and heavy rainfall. Hailstones may also be formed, when the water vapours are cooled multiple times (to form water first and then ice). CYCLONE Cyclones are formed when the average temperature of large water body exceeds 27° C, thus forming an area of very low pressure. This area then draws further air from high pressure areas quickly. A cone is formed when two oppositely travelling cold and warm winds meet. OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Intense lightning followed by very strong winds and heavy rainfall occurs. MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com FLOODS MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Flood is a temporary covering of land by water which is not usually under water. They can be caused by variety of factors like Heavy monsoon rainfall accompanied with melting of snow and ice in glaciers, dam or barrage failure, unusually high tides in coastal areas and by a tsunami However their effects can be exacerbated by factors like deforestation, failure to heighten or strengthen embankments, poor medical and communication facilities in aftermath of disaster and inadequate warning systems to allow people time for escape. Benefits of floods are limited to restoring underground water supplies, filling reservoirs of dam and laying down a fresh layer of silt on the inundated soil; which makes the soil fertile Effects Casualties - People and livestock die due to drowning. It can also lead to epidemics and waterborne diseases. Suspension of Trade- Airports can be closed (businessmen can be affected), roads and railway lines severed causing disruption to supplies of raw materials and products etc Water supplies can be contaminated. Spread of water-borne diseases. This could pose a serious danger to health of people who are affected Crops can be washed away, thus leading to food shortages. There could be a shortage of supplies to agro-based industries, like shortage of raw cotton to cotton factories. These factories thus won’t be able to fulfil their orders and will lose customers. To reduce their operating costs they will lay off workers causing unemployment and their own profits will decrease Silt deposited by floods adds nutrients to the flooded soil Trees die as their submerged roots can’t absorb oxygen There could be a decline in tourism, rebuilding costs could soar etc Solution Dams could be built to contain and regulate the flow of water and prevent flash floods Advanced warning systems should be installed in flood prone areas to warn people to get out before it’s too late OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Medical and transport facilities be regularly updated and checked MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Embankments and levees should be heightened and strengthened Also afforestation and re-afforestation projects should be carried out in Northern Mountains to reduce run-off and thus reducing chances of flash floods Mangrove plantations should be protected and allowed to grow, which protect from damaging rise in tide level during a tsunami OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com DROUGHTS MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON A drought is a period extending over several months or years when a region suffers a deficiency in its water supply. This occurs when a region receives below than average precipitation over a period of time. Meteorological drought is brought about when there is a prolonged period with less than average precipitation. Agricultural droughts are droughts that affect crop production. This condition can also arise independently from any change in precipitation levels when soil conditions and erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavours. These cause a shortfall in water available to the crops. Hydrological drought is brought about when the water reserves available in sources such as aquifers, lakes and reservoirs fall below the statistical average. Effects Crop yields can be dramatically reduced and livestock production could fall (milk, eat etc). This can raise prices of goods and affect price of exported goods making them uncompetitive in international markets thus harming national interests Dust storms can occur, when drought hits an area suffering from desertification and erosion. This can lead to siltation in reservoirs of dam, hampering electricity generation and weakening dam’s foundation Habitat damage, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic wildlife Malnutrition, dehydration and related diseases could affect millions Mass migration causing the increase in internal refugees or international refugees Reduced electricity production could occur as reduced water flow through hydroelectric dams leads to low industrial production and less exports resulting in less foreign exchange Shortages of water for industries like (juice etc), which affects employment and GDP Social unrest may follow leading to instability, which can discourage foreign investment thus local sectors may suffer from outdated machinery techniques etc resulting in low production War could occur over natural resources, including lakes and fertile areas etc Wildfires can become common and can cause health hazard to people OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com SUMMERS PAST PAPERS 2019-2011 MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 1 J2019/P2/Q1 OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 2 J2018/P2/Q1 OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 3 J2016/P2/Q1/A MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 4 J2016/P2/Q5/A(i) OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 5 J2015/P2/Q1/A-B MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 6 J2014/P2/Q3/A(i) OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 7 J2014/P2/Q4/A(i-ii) OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 8 J2013/P42/Q1/A MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 9 J2013/P2/Q1 OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 10 J2012/P2/Q2/A-C MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 11 J2011/P2/Q5 OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com ANSWER KEY MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 1 J2019/P2/Q1 OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 2 J2018/P2/Q1 OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 3 J2016/P2/Q1/A MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 4 J2016/P2/Q5/A(i) Question 5 J2015/P2/Q1/A-B OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 6 J2014/P2/Q3/A(i) MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 7 J2014/P2/Q4/A(i-ii) Question 8 J2013/P42/Q1/A OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 9 J2013/P2/Q1 MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 10 J2012/P2/Q2/A-C OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 11 J2011/P2/Q5 MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com WINTERS PAST PAPERS 2019-2011 MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 1 N2019/P2/Q1/A-B OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 2 N2017/P2/Q2/C(i-ii) OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 3 N2017/P2/Q4/A OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 4 N2017/P2/Q5/A,C OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 5 N2016/P2/Q1/A MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 6 N2015/P2/Q2/C OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 7 N2014/P2/Q3/A MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 8 N2013/P2/Q1/B MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 9 N2013/P2/Q3/C MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 10 N2012/P2/Q2/A-C OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 11 N2011/P2/Q5/A-C OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com ANSWER KEY MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 1 N2019/P2/Q1/A-B OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com Question 2 N2017/P2/Q2/C(i-ii) MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 3 N2017/P2/Q4/A Question 4 N2017/P2/Q5/A,C OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 5 N2016/P2/Q1/A OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 6 N2015/P2/Q2/C Question 7 N2014/P2/Q3/A OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 8 N2013/P2/Q1/B Question 9 N2013/P2/Q3/C Question 10 N2012/P2/Q2/A-C OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON Question 11 N2011/P2/Q5/A-C OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE +92 317 2631567 [email protected] www.muhammadyousufmemon.com MUHAMMAD YOUSUF MEMON OLEVEL PAK STUDIES I 2059/02 I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
