Mojza OL Geography Notes PDF

MOJZA O levels & IGCSE PAKISTAN STUDIES Paper 2 NOTES 2059/02 & 0448/02 BY TEAM MOJZA  MOJZA` CONTENTS The Land of Pakistan ---------------------Pg 02 Natural Resources -----------------------Pg 19 Power Resources ------------------------Pg 41...

MOJZA O levels & IGCSE PAKISTAN STUDIES Paper 2 NOTES 2059/02 & 0448/02 BY TEAM MOJZA  MOJZA` CONTENTS The Land of Pakistan ---------------------Pg 02 Natural Resources -----------------------Pg 19 Power Resources ------------------------Pg 41 Agricultural Development –---------------Pg 51 Industrial Development ------------------Pg 72 Trade –---------------------------------Pg 93 Transport & Telecommunication ----------Pg 98 Population & Employment-----------------Pg 110 1  MOJZA` The Land of Pakistan Location of Pakistan - Latitudes, Longitudes & Neighbouring Countries ➔ Total area of Pakistan consists of 796,096 sq. km ➔ It is located in between the latitude 23.5°N, 30°N and 36°N ➔ It is located between the longitude 64°E, 70°E and 76°E ➔ It shares a border with India in the East, China in the North West, Afghanistan in the North West, Iran in the South West and Arabian Sea in the South. - Administrative areas of Pakistan ➔ Named cities: Islamabad, Murree, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, Sialkot, Peshawar, Chitral, Gilgit, Hyderabad, Karachi, Quetta and Gwadar 2  MOJZA` - Rivers of Pakistan ➔ Named rivers: River Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Swat, Kabul, Hab, Hingol, Porali - Passes in Pakistan Passes Areas it connect Karakoram Kashmir with China Khunjerab Gilgit with China Bolan Quetta with Kachi Sibi Plain Khyber Peshawar with Kabul (Afghanistan) Lowari Dir with Chitral Babusar Himalayas with Mansehra Shera Shing Hindu Kush with Afghanistan in Wakhan Territory 3  MOJZA` Natural Topography-Including drainage ➔ Topography refers to the study of surface features of land ➔ Pakistan can be divided into six major topographical areas: The Northern and North-Western Mountains The Western Mountains Balochistan Plateau Potwar Plateau & Salt Range The Indus Plain Deserts The Northern & North-Western Mountains ➔ Consists of Three dominant Ranges ➔ The Northern Mountains can divided into two main mountain ranges; the Karakoram, & the Himalayas ➔ The North-Western Mountain contains the Hindu Kush range 4  MOJZA` - The Karakoram range ➔ Karakoram is situated in the Northern Kashmir and the regions of Gilgit. ➔ Average height of the Karakoram Range is 6000 metres. ➔ It has deep, narrow valleys and sharp peaks covered with snow and glaciers. ➔ The highest peak of Pakistan, K-2 is located here (8610 m high). ➔ Karakoram means “black gravel” which is a mass of rock & ice. ➔ Located at the extending for more than 400 km from Hunza to Shyok River, running in an east to west direction ➔ It has steep sided peaks and deep narrow valleys, gorges, cliffs and gullies. ➔ Alpine forests are located here ➔ Siachen (78 km), Biafo (62.5 km) and Baltoro (58 km) are famous glaciers found here ➔ Khunjerab and Karakoram Pass are located in the Karakoram Range - The Himalayas ➔ Himalaya is surrounded by most of the part of Pakistan towards the North. ➔ Himalaya means “the house of ice”. ➔ These mountains are spread up to Gilgit. ➔ Located at the South of Karakoram ➔ The Himalayas consists of: The Siwaliks (600-1200m) located near Attock The Lesser or lower Himalayas(1800 -4500 m) covering the area of Murree,Nathia Gali & Ghora Gali Central Himalayas (5000-8126 m) are located between Pir Panjal Range and Karakoram range. The highest peak of this region is Nanga Parbat (8126 m) ➔ Steep sided mountains, deep narrow valleys with snow capped peaks are found here. ➔ Winters are cold & long while summers are mild & short ➔ Snowfall at higher altitude and rainfall at lower altitude is experienced during summers. ➔ Alpine and coniferous forests are found here. ➔ It serves as a main source of drainage for River Indus and River Chenab. - The Hindu Kush ➔ The Hindu Kush range lies in the North West of Karakoram Range. ➔ Most of the mountains of this range are in Afghanistan. ➔ The highest peak of this range is Tirich Mir (7690 m high). ➔ Snow covered peaks with steep sided mountains and deep narrow valleys are located here. ➔ Winters are cold and long while summers are mild to hot & short. ➔ Extreme cold winds blow during winters, temperature falls below freezing point. ➔ Snowfall at higher altitude and rainfall at lower altitude is experienced during winters. ➔ Alpine and coniferous forests are found here. ➔ River Swat & river Kabul are drained by these rivers. ➔ Warsak Dam on river Kabul is the main source of irrigation & drainage. ➔ Chitral and Dir are situated here. ➔ It contains many passes including Khyber Pass, Lowari Pass, Shandur Pass etc. 5  MOJZA` - Lifestyle of people & Economy of Northern Mountains ➔ The people of the northern areas lead a very harsh life. ➔ The livestock farmers move to lowland areas during winters due to extreme cold and snow. ➔ They then return in the summer or spring season when the temperature becomes bearable for the animals. ➔ Such practice is known as "Transhumance" or seasonal migration. ➔ Some are nomads who move from one area to another in search of food, water and shelter. ➔ The people are engaged in cottage industries and herding, they rear animals. They keep farms where they are settled. ➔ Agriculture can only be practised in summers on terraces where wheat, barley, rice, maize, and vegetables are grown. ➔ The output of cottage industries are handicrafts, rugs, carpets, etc. ➔ Most areas lack transport facilities due to difficult terrain. ➔ Fruits like apricots, apples, peaches and pomegranates are grown in a great quantity. ➔ Gemstones are extracted from some areas. ➔ Northern areas are famous for Tourism. The Western Mountains ➔ The Western Mountain comprises of the mountain ranges, namely; the Waziristan hills, the Safed Koh range, the Sulaiman range and the Kirthar range - Safed Koh range ➔ Located at the South of Kabul River, where the height reaches up to 4712 m. ➔ They are called Safed Koh (White Mountains) because their peaks are often covered with snow. ➔ Steep sided mountains and deep narrow valleys are located here. ➔ Passes like Kurram pass are found there, providing a route to Afghanistan. ➔ River Kabul and River Kurram drain these areas. ➔ Warsak dam on river Kabul and Kurram dam on river Kurram are the main source of drainage, irrigation and power generation. ➔ Cities like Peshawar, Kohat are located there. ➔ Alpine and coniferous forests are located here. - Waziristan Hills ➔ Waziristan hills are located between River Kurram and River Gomal. ➔ They reach up to a height of 3513 m. ➔ This hill ranges from a rampart between Afghanistan and Pakistan. ➔ Tochi and Gomal pass are located there. ➔ Snowfall at high altitude is experienced. ➔ Coniferous forests are found here. ➔ Dera Ismail Khan and Bannu Valley are the famous towns. ➔ These hills are highly mineralized. ➔ River Kurram and River Gomal drain this range. ➔ Kurram Dam on river Kurram provides irrigation, drainage and power generation. 6  MOJZA` - Sulaiman & Kirthar Range ➔ Sulaiman Range is located to the west of river Indus. ➔ Takht-e-Sulaiman (3500 m) is the highest peak ➔ Moving southward of Sulaiman Range is joined by Kirthar Range, which is later backed by the Pab range. ➔ Limestone and sandstone are the main minerals in these areas. ➔ Rivers Hub, Porali and Hingoli drain these rivers. ➔ Braided river channels drain the Sulaiman range. ➔ Hub dam on river Hub provides irrigation, drainage and power generation. - Lifestyle of People & Economy of Western Mountains ➔ Life in Western Mountains is difficult because it has rugged topography. ➔ More Population density than the Northern Mountains, Peshawar being the most densely populated ➔ Except for Peshawar and Kohat, the rest of area is devoid of good communication system ➔ Limited transportation facilities are provided ➔ Nomadic lifestyle is common and sheep and goat rearing is the main occupation ➔ The Western mountains are mostly bare of vegetation. ➔ The relief and climate do not support farming and canal Irrigation. ➔ Sub-tropical scrub forests are found ➔ Some people grow important grains and cash crops like rice, wheat, sugarcane and tobacco. ➔ Millet and grams are also cultivated ➔ A number of cottage industries have long been established and the products include various handicrafts and the famous Kohat and Peshawari Chappals. ➔ Mineral deposits have not yet been explored and exploited due to the poor road network. Balochistan Plateau ➔ Balochistan Plateau which is located at the south west of pakistan ranges altitudes from 600m to around 3000m. ➔ It has a number of irregular depressions such as Zhob and Lorelai basins situated between Toba Kakar Ranges and the Suleiman Ranges. ➔ South west of the Loralai Basin is the Quetta valley ➔ Alluvial fans on the piedmont plain are formed here when the deposits of alluvial material are brought by the river channels. ➔ It contains several parallel ranges running in an East to West direction such as the Chagai Hills, Raskoh Range, and Makran Coastal range. ➔ Area is devoid of vegetation and little rainfall. ➔ These basins have no outlet to the sea. So rainfall makes temporary rivers and streams which often soak into the ground. ➔ The temporary lakes are called Hamuns in the local language. Hamun-i-Mashkel is the largest Hamun of the region. ➔ There are Salt Lakes and when the water evaporates, a salty crust is left behind and it is then called Salt Pan. 7  MOJZA` - Coastal Areas of Balochistan ➔ The coastal areas of the Balochistan Plateau can be divided into eastern and western parts. ➔ The eastern part comprises the Lasbela Plain and the western part is known as the Makran coast. ➔ The region comprises the Rivers Hub, Porali, Hingol and Dasht which flows into the Arabian Sea. Potwar Plateau ➔ It is situated between the River Indus and River Jhelum where the altitude varies from 300 to 600 m, which generally is referred to as bad land topography. ➔ Major cities covers Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Jhelum, Attock ➔ It is dominated by limestone ridges, salt, coal and oil mines and ravines. ➔ Kalar- Kahar Lake and Khabeki Lake are two salt lakes located here. ➔ Kala-Chitta and Khairi–Murat ranges are the two prominent hill ranges (1000 m). ➔ River Jhelum and River Soan are the two main sources of drainage. ➔ Mangla Dam on River Jhelum is the main source of irrigation, drainage, and power generation. Salt Range ➔ Average altitude is 750 m to 900 m ➔ The highest point of the range is Sakesar peak (1527 m) ➔ It runs from east-west direction ➔ Areas such as Jhelum, Chakwal, Kalabagh and Mianwali districts are located here. ➔ Salt range consists of several parallel ranges which are folded and faulted. Sandstone and shale rocks are commonly found. ➔ It rich in rock salt, gypsum and limestone - Lifestyle of Potwar Plateau & Salt Range ➔ The area is rich in mineral deposits for which manpower is employed, some people are employed in Attock Oil Refinery, others in cement factories. ➔ It is a Barani (rain-fed) land where canal irrigation is difficult to practise. ➔ Population density is high in major towns like Rawalpindi & low in villages like Chakwal & Attock ➔ There are technical training institutions for men & women, which will open gates of employment for them. ➔ Construction of the M-1 phase of the motorway has improved the local economy. ➔ The people in this region are modern. Barani lands are found to grow wheat. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary sectors are present. The Indus Plain ➔ The Indus Plain is divided into Upper Indus, Lower Indus and Deltaic plain. ➔ It is located on the eastern side of Pakistan and covers the whole Punjab & most of Sindh. ➔ Northern part of the plain is called Upper Indus Plain, covering the area of Punjab. ➔ Southern part of the plain is called Lower Indus Plain, covering most of Sindh. 8  MOJZA` ➔ The area of upper Indus plain is drained by river Indus and its tributaries; River Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. ➔ The land is often flooded after the severe rainfall. ➔ Monsoons usually bring heavy rains in July - September months when Humidity is high. ➔ The four main tributaries of Indus are joined at Panjand which later joins Indus at Mithankot. ➔ Doab is the land between two rivers, e.g. the land between Ravi and Sutlej. ➔ Doabs are favoured as areas for a number of human activities such as farming, construction of settlements, buildings of transport, other industrial & business activities. ➔ Each Doab has leveès, Active Flood Plains, Old Flood Plain, Scarps, Alluvial terraces. Doabs Location Sindh Sagar Doab Between Indus and Jehlum Chaj Between Jhelum and Chenab Rachna Between Chenab and Ravi Bari Between Ravi and Sutlej 9  MOJZA` - Active Flood Plains ➔ It is a flat, narrow plain on both sides of a river. ➔ The area is around 2-3m above the level of a river. ➔ The area gets actively flooded every year, hence it is a suitable place for growing water intensive crops such as Rice, Sugarcane, etc. ➔ Towards the end of the rainy season, when the river changes its position Meanders, Oxbow lakes, Abandoned and braided channels become visible. ➔ The fast flow of the river brings alluvium in large quantities. - Oxbow lake, Braided channels & Flood Plain - Old Flood Plain ➔ It is a flat area that comes after the Active flood plain. ➔ The area is around 5m above the level of a river. ➔ It is flooded every 7-8 years when there is heavy monsoon rainfall ➔ Old Alluvium deposits cover the plain, which makes it suitable for agriculture. ➔ It consists of Meanders, Oxbow Lakes, Braided Channels and Levees. - Alluvial Terraces ➔ They are the areas higher than the ground, shaped like bars. ➔ Formed due to the deposition of old alluvium ➔ They are only found in the doabs of Upper Indus Plain. ➔ They are suited best for agriculture with the help of irrigation facilities. 10  MOJZA` Bars Doabs they are located on Sandal Bar Rechna Doab Ganji Bar Bari Doab Nili Bar Bari & Kirana Doab - Features of a river - Piedmont Plains ➔ Located at the foothills of Sulaiman, Kirthar and Himalayan Mountains ➔ Most of the rivers or streams emerges from these foothills, here the river flow slowly due to which they deposit the alluvium, sand & gravel,and Piedmont Plains are formed ➔ Alluvial fans are the most dominant features of Piedmont plains - Tidal Delta ➔ A fan or a triangular-shaped deposit of sand formed on the opening through which ocean water enters and leave ➔ When a river comes closer to the Arabian Sea, its speed decreases and alluvium is deposited on the seafloor , which divides the river into small channels. ➔ Two of the rivers of Pakistan form the Delta: ➔ Indus Delta is formed on River Indus; ➔ Hub Delta is formed on River Hub ➔ The Indus delta has mangrove swamps - Rolling Sand Dunes Most dominant characteristic of desert It is a mound or a ridge of sand generated when a barrier blocks the course of rolling sand Causing part of the sand to be deposited behind the barrier. Direction of sand dunes is longitudinal, while latitudinal are also seen 11  MOJZA` - Lifestyle & Economy of Indus Plain ➔ The Upper and lower indus plains constitute the most active and important economic region in Pakistan. ➔ Due to fertile alluvium and flat land agricultural and industrial activities are performed. ➔ Tolerable climate conditions have attracted people to settle down. ➔ Cash Crops with many agro based industries have developed in this region. ➔ In the Indus Delta region, the sources of earning are fishing and agriculture. ➔ They also have some other primary industries. ➔ The Indus Plain has a dense network of railway lines and roads. All the modern facilities are provided over here. ➔ Thick population density in this region ➔ All employment sectors as primary, secondary and tertiary are present due to infrastructure. The Desert Areas ➔ Rolling sand plains and sand dunes are found here ➔ There are alot of sand plains and pattis (strips of sand formed by the action of Wind) ➔ Gently undulating plain, longitudinal and latitudinal ridges are other important features ➔ There are rolling sand hills, wide interdunal valleys with slit and clayey sediments ➔ The rocks are barren due to lack of water ➔ Cracks appear in the rocks due to the effect of weathering ➔ These areas are bare of any drainage system ➔ No rivers or streams pass through the deserts ➔ River Indus is near Thal. Desert Sukkur barrage has provided irrigation facility in Thar desert ➔ If a water body is present then it turns into an oasis Deserts Location Kharan Balochistan Thal Punjab, Between Indus & Jhelum Thar Tharparkar Nara Cholistan - Lifestyle & Economy of Desert Areas ➔ Life in deserts is quite difficult because of hot climate, lack of water and vegetation and frequent dust storms ➔ The population density is very low and nomadic life is common. People move in search of fodder and water ➔ Milk, meat and butter are provided by the livestock ➔ After the construction of Sukkur Barrage, much of the Thar is converted to farmland ➔ Poverty is dominant and people suffer from diseases, mainly allergies and Hepatitis B ➔ The coal and power project, started with the Chinese Cooperation PSDP (Public Sector Development Project) is an example of this regard ➔ Cash crops are also grown eg. onion, garlic, chilies and brinjal 12  MOJZA` Climate ➔ Climate: Atmospheric condition of an area for a long period of time, e.g., 20-30 years ➔ Weather: Atmospheric condition of an area for a short period of time, e.g., day to day Climatic Zones ➔ The four Climatic zones in Pakistan are: Highland climate Lowland climate Coastal climate Arid climate - Highland Climate ➔ Includes northern, northwestern and western highlands. ➔ Winters are long, cold and snowy and the summers are short and mild. ➔ Rainfall is associated with altitude, highest in the northern mountain. ➔ Western mountains experience less rainfall. ➔ Temperature also varies depending on the altitude. ➔ Summers are short, mild & wet in the northern mountains but dry & warm in western mountains. ➔ Farming is not possible during winter. ➔ People practise indoor activities such as carpet weaving, pottery etc ➔ Transhumance is popular where people move from highland to lowland areas in winter and the opposite in summer. ➔ Mainly herdsmen keep sheep and goats. - Lowland Climate ➔ Includes the whole Indus plain except coastal areas. ➔ Arid and extreme climate, hot summers and cool winters with summer monsoon. ➔ Rainfall differs from north to west. ➔ The North has a lot more rainfall whereas the west has less and higher temperature. ➔ Fertile plains and river Indus with its tributaries make it popular for agriculture. ➔ Have well developed canal systems - Coastal Climate ➔ Includes southern coastal strip ➔ The maritime influence keeps the temperature low ➔ In summer the land heats up while the ocean is cool ➔ In winter the land loses heat quickly and becomes cold while the ocean is much warmer ➔ Average humidity level is more than 50% and the mean temperature is 32°C ➔ Farming is possible throughout the year ➔ Seaports are used for trading and fishing ➔ Many large-scale industries ➔ People face floods and tropical cyclones 13  MOJZA` - Arid Climate ➔ Includes south-western Balochistan and the west-eastern desert ➔ Dry and hot with less rainfall ➔ Extreme heat, dryness and dust storms are experienced ➔ Not ideal for farming ➔ There are mostly nomads here travelling around for food and water with their herds ➔ There is less rainfall so people use the Karez system ➔ Some areas have been reclaimed for farming using perennial canals - The four seasons in Pakistan ➔ Winter: From December to March ➔ Early summer: From April to June ➔ Late summer (monsoon season): From July to September ➔ Post-monsoon: From October to December 14  MOJZA` Climatic Elements ➔ Temperature ➔ Rainfall ➔ Pressure & Wind 1. Temperature ➔ Temperature is a degree of hotness or coldness that can be measured using a thermometer. ➔ Temperature is generally measured in degrees on Celsius scale. ➔ Jacobabad is known as the thermal pool where the max temperature reaches 53 °C and the mean temperature in the summer is 43°C. - Factors Affecting Temperature ➔ Latitudinal Effect: The areas closer to the equator receive direct/latitudinal rays from the sun and get higher temperature. ➔ Continental Effect: Along coastal areas ocean currents and wind affect the temperature. ➔ Altitude: The air is densest at sea level and less dense at high altitude. The less density of air to absorb heat at higher altitude causes lower temperature. ➔ Cloud Cover: Cloud reduces solar radiation by reflecting it back into outer space during the day and at night it traps the heat going to outer space. ➔ Latitude and Angle of Sun: During summer the northern hemisphere is tilted toward the sun causing higher temperature. In winter it's the opposite. 2. Rainfall ➔ The main sources of rainfall in Pakistan are: Monsoon Wind Western depression Convectional current Relief rainfall Tropical Cyclone - Monsoon Winds ➔ Seasonal winds occurring during summers and winters ➔ Summer winds are known as south-west monsoons, while winter winds are known as north-east monsoons. ➔ Rains begin when the summer sun heats up tropical continents faster than the ocean. ➔ Warm air rising overland creates low pressure, attracting cool, moist air from the sea. ➔ Main monsoon winds blow from the Bay of Bengal, crossing Bangladesh and North India before entering northern Pakistan. ➔ Monsoon winds start in June and cause heavy rainfall in northern Punjab in July. ➔ Seasonal reversal of monsoon winds; blowing towards the land in summer and towards the sea in winter. 15  MOJZA` - Western Depression ➔ Winds originating in the Mediterranean Sea ➔ Travel across Afghanistan and Iran before reaching the western areas ➔ These winds bring rainfall from December to March. - Convectional Currents ➔ Hot air rises at the beginning of summer, carrying high moisture content ➔ Condensation occurs when the air reaches higher layers of the atmosphere, leading to rainfall, especially in northern and north-western areas. - Relief Rainfall ➔ Related to the height of the land ➔ Occurs when moist, unstable air moves up and experiences condensation and precipitation through wind ➔ Leeward slopes tend to receive sinking, warming air, creating dry rain shadow areas. - Tropical Cyclones ➔ May bring a few hours of heavy rainfall and destructive winds to coastal areas ➔ Originates over the Arabian Sea, but rarely reaches the coast of Pakistan ➔ Source of rainfall from tropical cyclones is unpredictable and unreliable. 3. Pressure & Wind ➔ In summer the temperature is high on land which causes the hot air to rise up and form a low pressure zone. ➔ At the same time the ocean & seas have low temperatures creating a high pressure zone. ➔ This causes the movement of summer monsoon wind causing heavy rainfall. ➔ In winter it is the complete opposite as the pressure over land increases and the pressure over oceans and seas decreases. ➔ This causes the movement of winter monsoon wind. 16  MOJZA` Storms ➔ Strong winds occur from April to June in summer and September to October in the post-monsoon season,reaching speeds of 60-80 km per hour. ➔ Stormy rainfall and hail are possible ➔ Fruits are destroyed and crops are damaged ➔ Electricity infrastructure is disrupted ➔ Communication systems, including telephone lines and internet connections, can be damaged ➔ Transportation becomes difficult. Causes - Natural cause ➔ Unreliability of rainfall by monsoon ➔ Dry, hot winds ➔ Sandy soils lacking moisture ➔ Arid lands ➔ Global climate is changing - Human cause ➔ Mismanagement of water resources due to seepage of unlined canals ➔ Dispute on water distribution among provinces overgrazing of land leading to soil erosion reduces the soil fertility ➔ Deforestation on foothills of mountains in areas with solid erosion Effects ➔ Economy is destructed ➔ Animals cannot get fodder ➔ Human beings can die due to shortage of food crops ➔ Cattle can die Floods - Advantages ➔ Increased alluvium flow leading to soil fertility ➔ Greater water discharge in rivers for hydroelectric power generation ➔ Enhanced irrigation opportunities for agriculture ➔ Increased fish migration to river deltas ➔ Improved reproduction and breeding of fish in freshwater areas ➔ Replenishment of groundwater reserves ➔ Nutrient enrichment of the land ➔ Promotion of wetland expansion and health 17  MOJZA` - Disadvantages ➔ Disruption of residential areas from essential services and shops ➔ Destruction of crops and crop fields ➔ Damage to houses and infrastructure ➔ Outbreak of epidemics, resulting in illness ➔ Damage and isolation of roads and railway tracks ➔ Risk of drowning for humans and animals - Effective Measures for Flood Control ➔ Implement afforestation programs in the foothills of mountains to promote tree growth ➔ Construct cemented embankments on both sides to prevent flood water overflow ➔ Build more reservoirs, barrages, and dams to store water for electricity generation and local water supply ➔ Initiate flood warning programs through various media platforms ➔ Develop comprehensive rehabilitation programs for flood victims and affected regions ➔ Expand river channels to accommodate larger volumes of water Droughts -The Four types of Droughts ➔ Permanent Drought: Stays forever ➔ Seasonal Drought: Stays for a dry season ➔ Invisible Drought: Result of less water causing lower crop yield ➔ Unpredictable Drought: Caused by an abnormally low amount of rainfall -Causes of Drought ➔ Unreliable rain source ➔ Climate Change ➔ Deforestation ➔ Mismanagement of water resources ➔ Overgrazing ➔ Global Warming 18  MOJZA` Chapter 2: Natural Resources Water Resources - an Issue of sustainability Sources of Water ➔ Ground water: Water present below the soil OR Water brought up to surface by various methods such as tube wells and karez system ➔ Water bodies: Water present in water bodies on the surface of earth such as Lakes, Oceans, Rivers) OR Water transported by canals The Rivers of Pakistan - Rivers of Balochistan ➔ River Zhob, Khandhar and Kalaichi drain into River Indus ➔ The rivers Loralai, Chakar, Bolan and Mula flow into Kachi Sibi Plain ➔ Rivers Hub, Porali, Hingol and Mashkel drain into Arabian Sea - The Indus Rivers System ➔ Eastern Tributaries: River Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej ➔ Western Rivers: River Kabul, Khurram, Tochi, Gomal, Swat 19  MOJZA` Map showing Rivers of Pakistan Uses of Water - Domestic Use ➔ Drinking, cooking, washing, sanitation - Industrial Use ➔ For hydroelectric power (HEP) ➔ For pharmaceuticals e.g., syrups, drips, injections ➔ Tanning industry for washing leather ➔ Food processing industry for juices, squashes, beverages, etc ➔ Chemical industries for making acids, liquids bleach, and solutions ➔ In textile industries for washing bleaching, blueing, dying, printing ➔ In iron and steel industry for cooling down of furnaces ➔ Thermal power stations for making steam 20  MOJZA` ➔ Mineral water industry uses water as raw material Irrigation ➔ Irrigation refers to the artificial supply of water usually used for crops in farming ➔ 75% of cultivated area is under irrigation in pakistan ➔ Utilises water which would otherwise flow into the sea ➔ Allows barren lands such as deserts to be made productive - The Need of Irrigation ➔ Increasing aridity in lands ➔ It is needed in arid or arid areas ➔ Spells of high temperature increase the rate of evapo-transpiration ➔ Unreliable rainfall especially monsoons ➔ Low amount of rainfall ➔ Small rainy days ➔ High variability in distribution ➔ Rainfall in heavy showers increases surface run-off - Canal Irrigation ➔ By canal irrigation millions of gallons of water are utilised that would flow into Arabian Sea ➔ Cheap labor and availability of cement reduces the cost of canal construction ➔ Canal system irrigates a vast area. Even the deserts have been made productive ➔ Irregular supply of water in the river is then regulated by construction of dams and barrages ➔ Huge quantities of water from monsoon rainfall and melting snow can be stored in reservoirs during summer season ➔ Soft soil and level land of the Indus Plain makes digging of canals easier than in the rugged lands of Balochistan ➔ Southward slope of rivers makes construction of canals easier because water flows southwards naturally Methods of Irrigation Modern Methods ➔ Irrigates a vast area ➔ Less time consuming ➔ Usually easier to build and maintain ➔ Usually doesn't require manual labour ➔ Costly compared to traditional methods ➔ High Maintenance cost ➔ Needs fuel, diesel, electricity etc ➔ Reduces groundwater or lowers the water table - Tubewells ➔ Chemically or electrically operated machines ➔ Can raise water from the depth of 100 metres 21  MOJZA` ➔ Can be used to irrigate a area of 1000 hectares - Perennial Canals ➔ Canals which are taken out from dams and barrages ➔ It has water all the year round which provides an ease for agriculture ➔ Irrigates a vast area - Sprinkles ➔ Connected to a water supply ➔ Mainly used in orchids and market gardening ➔ Placed in fields and shoot water around watering the fields ➔ It is an expensive method ➔ There is less wastage of water in this method than others - Tankers ➔ They collect water from lakes and ponds to provide it to fields and houses in case of emergency ➔ Very expensive ➔ Rarely used Conventional Methods ➔ Also known as Traditional methods ➔ It irrigates a small area usually used for subsistence farming ➔ Time consuming and harder to build and maintain ➔ Requires manual labour ➔ Less costly compared to modern methods ➔ Less efficient and slower as compared to modern methods ➔ Contains unhygienic water ➔ Causes waterlogging and salinity - Shaduf ➔ Well, river or canal is attached to the pole by a bucket on one side and weight on other side ➔ A small area can only be irrigated ➔ Animal power is also used as labour ➔ It is not used now - Persian Wells ➔ Persian water wheel is a device used to raise water out of well or river ➔ It is a system of a chain of buckets slung round a vertical wheel, which is turned by a system of another interlocking vertical and horizontal wheels powered by a bull driven in a circle ➔ With the passage of time the wooden wheel is replaced by metal - Charsa ➔ Charsa is an irrigation method in animal power is used to pull out water from a water source 22  MOJZA` ➔ In this the small area irrigates and lots of time is wasted in this system of irrigation - Karez ➔ Underground horizontal tunnel system that are dug in the foothills that brings underground water to the surface ➔ Vertical shafts are also dug to maintain the tunnel and clear incase of any blockage ➔ Usually dug by a group of people who share the water ➔ These are only found in Balochistan to stop evapotranspiration - Inundation canals ➔ Long canals taken off from rivers ➔ receives water when water table is high or in flood Link Canals ➔ Link Canals transfer water from western rivers for eastern rivers ➔ The water lost to India from eastern river is compensated by these canals ➔ The link canals in Pakistan are: Marala-Ravi Bombanwala-Ravi-Badian–Depalpur Rasul–Qadirabad Qadirabad-Balloki Balloki-Sulaiman 1 Balloki-Sulaiman 2 Chashma-Jhelum Trimmu-Sidhnai Taunsa-Panjnad Sidhnai-Mailsi Bahawal Dams ➔ They are huge barriers built on water routes such as rivers to store water and to generate hydroelectric power (HEP) ➔ Tarbela dam is built on river indus ➔ It is the largest earth filled dam of pakistan ➔ It is 143 m high and covers an area of 243 sq. km ➔ Mangla dam is built on river Jhelum ➔ Dams can either be large or small and can be used to exploit their advantages 23  MOJZA` Small Dams Large Dams Store water for irrigation Store water for irrigation Irrigates local areas only Irrigates a vast area It is easier to solve silting problems It is difficult to solve silting problem Low initial investment is required High initial Investment is required Low maintenance cost High maintenance cost Less constructing time is required Mor constructing time is required Less Labour required Labours are required on large-scale Little impact on rivers, watersheds and Extensive impact on river, watersheds and aquatic ecosystems aquatic ecosystems Water is used for Industrial and domestic Water is used for Industrial and domestic use use Little or no electricity is generated Major source for electricity generation Less important for flood control More important for flood control - Requirements ➔ Low temperature ➔ High altitude ➔ Mountainous area with steep slope at the fall and gentle at bottom ➔ Snowfall area ➔ Area with more rainfall ➔ Flow of fast river to move the turbine - Functions ➔ Produce HEP (HydroElectric Power) ➔ Scenic Beauty ➔ Attract tourists for foreign exchange ➔ Fishing in reservoirs ➔ Storage of water in reservoirs ➔ Store water for irrigation ➔ Canals can be taken out from dams Barrages ➔ Large structure used for irrigation and flood control ➔ Not involved in the generation of electricity or hep ➔ Construction cost is less than that of dam ➔ Can be made even in flat areas 24  MOJZA` ➔ Properties such as size and capacity depends on width of river - Examples of barrages Barrages Location Area under irrigation Sukkur Barrage River Indus Nawabshah, Larkana Guddu Barrage River Indus Jacobad, Ghotki Kotri Barrage River Indus Hyderabad, Badin, Thatta Marala Barrage River Chenab Sialkot, Gujranwala Rasul Barrage River Jhelum Sargodha, Gujrat Chashma Barrage River Indus Punjab & KPK ⬆ Map showing Dams & Barrage of Pakistan Water logging & Salinity ➔ Water logging is the rise of water table to the surface level 25  MOJZA` ➔ Excess water in land causes water logging ➔ When the excess water dries up and salt is spread, Salinity is observed - Solution ➔ Lining of canals ➔ Canal closure when the water is not needed ➔ Installing tubewells to pump out water to lower the water level ➔ Planting eucalyptus trees ➔ Draining of water from lands ➔ Treating the land with chemical or limestone - Organisations ➔ SCARP ( Salinity Control and Reclamation Project) is working for treatment of waterlogged and saline areas ➔ WAPDA ( Water and Power Development Authority) ➔ IRSA ( Indus River System Authority) is working to eradicate the problem ➔ SDO ( Small Dams Organization) is working to build new small dams Siltation ➔ Material brought by riverflow that deposits in water reservoirs such as dams is called silt ➔ It Leads to decreased capacity in reservoirs - Causes ➔ Silt is eroded from the mountains with the help of river flow of river ➔ Eroded material from narrow and deep valleys causes siltation ➔ Due to deforestation, a fast flow of silt accumulates - Effects ➔ Weaken the foundation of dams ➔ Blockage of canals ➔ Reduction in storing capacity of water in Dams ➔ It can result in floods ➔ Fluctuation of electricity due to silt in turbines - Solutions ➔ Afforestation programmes be made ➔ Cemented embankments be made ➔ Silt traps be installed before flow of water in dam ➔ Raising the height of dam to increase the capacity of reservoir ➔ Operating the water level at low pace when flood flows Indus Water Treaty ➔ Water distribution treaty between Pakistan and India ➔ Arranged and negotiated by world bank in 1960 26  MOJZA` ➔ This treaty gave full flow control of three eastern rivers named Beas, Ravi and Sutlej to India ➔ Pakistan was given full flow of Rivers Indus, Chenab and Jhelum ➔ Treaty included construction of Tarbela and Mangla dams, construction of 5 barrages, remodelling of existing canals and head works and construction of eight link canals ➔ The treaty ensured that India wouldn’t cut off Pakistan's water supply and Pakistan's water supply is maintained and its agricultural production is unharmed - Causes ➔ Pakistan's climatic condition is mostly dry and hot which results in low and unreliable rainfall rate ➔ Pakistan's population is increasing, resulting in more demand for food which can only be provided by use of irrigation due to the climate condition of pakistan ➔ As india cut off the water supply famine,droughts and starvation became a rising problem for Pakistan due to shortage of water for irrigation ➔ Pakistan decided to take the matter into International court Water Pollution - Causes of Water Pollution ➔ Sewage discharged into rivers ➔ Domestic garbage thrown into rivers ➔ Fertilisers runoff from agricultural fields ➔ Industrial waste discharged into rivers ➔ Waste from ship discharged into rivers ➔ Leakage of oil from ship enters water sources - Consequences ➔ Contaminates water and remains no longer drinkable ➔ Cost of treatment of water is high ➔ Causes disease such as diarrhoea and cholera ➔ Unpleasant smell and destroys scenic beauty ➔ Harmful chemical substances kill aquatic life resulting in decreased fish catch ➔ Can damage machinery ➔ Blocks ditches, canals and causes flooding ➔ Provides breeding ground for mosquito larvae - Solution ➔ Treatment of sewage water ➔ Improving sanitation facilities in poor quality housing ➔ Proper waste management and dumping of domestic and industrial waste ➔ Organic farming (Alternative to chemical fertilisers/pesticides) or selective use of fertiliser ➔ Fines charged on Water polluters ➔ Maintenance of oil ships 27  MOJZA` Management of Water resources ➔ Ways to increase water supply ➔ Small dams and large dams should be developed to store surplus water during rainy seasons such as monsoon ➔ Canals should be lined to save runoff of water into the soil ➔ Prevention of water pollution to avoid contaminated water ➔ Desalination of salt water (conversion of salt water to fresh) ➔ Public awareness to the disadvantages of loss of water Water as a resource for development ➔ Used for irrigation which improves yield significantly in agricultural sector ➔ Used in number of industries (tanning,food,water based consumables) ➔ Universal access to safe drinking water provides better hygiene, sanitation and safe drinking water overall raises living standards ➔ Used to produce steam and turbines in power producing stations such as nuclear, thermal, geothermal power stations and HEPs (dams) 28  MOJZA` Forest - An Issue of Sustainability ➔ Forest is a complex ecological system of land dominated by trees covering 4.8% of the land of Pakistan. ➔ There are two types of forests; Productive forests or natural forest and Protection forests or man-made plantation. Productive Forests Protective Forests Natural Forests Artificial or man-made Forests Alpine, coniferous, etc are incorporated It includes vegetation planted by man here like riverain High density of trees Tree density is moderate They are highly valuable to businesses They don't have much commercial value Greater biodiversity Less biodiversity It advances tourism Industry It promotes tourism The vegetation grows in a random manner The vegetations grown are linear They safeguard the environment by They protect the environment by preventing forestalling soil erosion & by going about as from soil erosion and by acting as carbon carbon sinks it cleans the environment sinks it cleans the environment - Importance of Forests ➔ Fuel wood ➔ Provide Shade, Natural habitat for animals ➔ Prevent soil erosion & Increase soil fertility ➔ Reduce pollution ➔ Timber is extracted from trees for the construction and transport industry ➔ Rainwater for wood based industry ➔ Ensures supply of Fruits ➔ Herbs for medicines and pharmaceuticals ➔ Wood pulp for paper ➔ Attract tourists, Provide scenic beauty and a source of foreign exchange for the local people ➔ Controls flood ➔ Brings rainfall, Lowers the temperature and makes the weather pleasant ➔ Regulate the supply of water ➔ A medical herb, Ephemera is obtained ➔ Resin is obtained for turpentine oil and gum ➔ Mazri is obtained for making mats and cap 29  MOJZA` Types of Forests Type Area Description Importance Alpine Northern Areas Stunted growth due to low Fuel wood temperature and sunlight Coniferous Northern Areas, KPK, Evergreen forests with conical Timber, environmental Balochistan Mountains shape protection Tropical Thorn Sindh Plain, Sindh Low height forest with thorny Firewood (Rakh) Plain, Punjab Plain, hardwood Balochistan Sub-Tropical Srub Foothills of Lower Subtropical broad-leaved and Watershed protection, Himalayas, Western thorny supplying firewood, grazing Mountains purposes Riverain or Bela River Indus & its Linear plantation along the Provide Shishum & Babul for tributaries banks of rivers making furniture, agricultural implements Mangrove Coastal Areas of Sindh Low trees and shrubs on tidal Firewood, breeding grounds, and Balochistan mud flats coastal protection Irrigated Changa Manga, Wan Economically important Timber, firewood, shade Bachran, Chichawatni, species planted in large blocks Ghulam Mohammad, Guddu Barrages - Factors determining the type of Forest ➔ Areas with different altitudes have different types of forests ➔ Aridity is another factor for e.g Aridity in Balochistan favours the growth of thorny bushes and shrubs ➔ Higher Precipitation in Northern Mountain encourages the growth of Coniferous Forest ➔ Edaphic Factors(types of soil) also determine the type and density of Forest in Pakistan ➔ In the Hub and Indus Delta, the deposition of alluvium encourages the growth of Mangrove Forest Deforestation ➔ Excess cutting of trees in a land is called deforestation - Causes ➔ For fuel wood as well as timber for industries ➔ Urbanisation, e.g building roads and railways ➔ Clearing lands for farming (growing of crops) ➔ Overgrazing by animals 30  MOJZA` ➔ Clear land for mining - Effects ➔ Exposure of soil leads to erosion and Upper topsoil humus layer is eroded ➔ Leads to infertility of land and increases surface runoff ➔ Results in flood, since there are no trees to reduce the flow of river ➔ Results in Siltation of Dams (Reduction of capacity of water in dams) ➔ Loss of habitat for animals ➔ Increase in temperature, while lack of oxygen ➔ Increases pollution ➔ Brings less rainfall ➔ Disrupts generation of electricity HEP in dams due to siltation, since there are no trees to hold the silt being deposited in the dams - Solutions ➔ Afforestation programs (AKRSP, Rachna Doab Project) ➔ Provide substitute areas for growing forest, if the land is being used for crop farming ➔ Substitute for furniture ➔ Supply of CNG, LPG for fuel wood species ➔ Reserve land to grow fuel wood species ➔ NGOs may provide awareness among people ➔ Improve techniques for raising nurseries ➔ Strict forest laws be imposed to stop bulldozing in forests by logging companies ➔ Selective cutting methods be used ➔ Strip Farming - Sustainable Forestry ➔ Sustainable Forestry refers to the use of forests and forests lands in such a way that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their demands ➔ Hence, Forests should be used in such a way and at a rate that maintains their biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity and their potential to fulfil now and in the future relevant ecological, economic and social functions, at local, national and global levels and that does not cause damage to other ecosystems - Ways to Sustain Forests ➔ Community Forestry and AgroForestry ➔ Planting trees to fill, replace gaps in forests especially in vulnerable areas such as on slopes ➔ Use dead branches for firewood rather than chopping trees down ➔ Educate and train local people into sustainable ways of use ➔ Plant fast growing agricultural trees like oil palms, eucalyptus ➔ Maintain a complete forest cover to prevent soil damage ➔ The tree crops can be used to shelter smaller food crops ➔ Wood needed for other purposes such as fuel can be provided by planting patching of fast growing eucalyptus trees ➔ Harvesting of HardWoods 31  MOJZA` ➔ Selective logging of trees of greatest commercial value ➔ Taking out only mature trees and leaving the rest to grow to full size ➔ Keep forest clearances small so that rapid generation is possible ➔ Do a preliminary survey to find the most suitable logging areas ➔ Check cutting of timber and ensure a long gap before next cutting 32  MOJZA` Mineral Resources - an Issue of Sustainability Formation of Minerals ➔ Due to sediment deposits, sedimentary rocks are formed ➔ When lava from the volcanoes cools down, igneous rocks are formed in crystals form ➔ The mixture of igneous and sedimentary rocks makes the metamorphic rocks Methods of Mining 1. Open Cast Mining ➔ Applied when a seam of mineral is observed on the surface ➔ Blasting and digging takes place for getting the mineral 2. Underground Mining - Adit Mining ➔ Applied when mineral seam is found along the slope or hill of mountain ➔ Horizontal tunnels are dug to enter and then extraction takes place - Shaft Mining ➔ Vertical shafts are dug deep, then horizontal digging takes place to extract the mineral ➔ Underground mining is a dangerous process ➔ Many poisonous gases can help in suffocation and death of the miners ➔ Rock blasting can block the miners inside the mine ➔ Elevators are also used - Quarrying ➔ Open excavation method, when a seam of the rock is observed on the surface especially soft rock, limestone ➔ It can be extracted with the help of power shovels, hammers, wedges and spades - Hand Panning Method ➔ The rock is broken from the mountain ➔ A huge pan is placed at the bottom of the mountain ➔ The rock which falls is shaken in the huge pan, the gold and sand separated like that, then the mineral is collected 33  MOJZA` Problems Faced by Mining Sector ➔ Lack of capital ➔ Lack of experts ➔ Lack of skilled labour ➔ Lack of machinery ➔ Lack of interest by the government for the sector ➔ Institutional mismanagement ➔ Inaccessible areas due to lack of infrastructure such as roads, electricity etc Metallic Minerals ➔ They resemble metals and have characteristics of metals e.g. they are shiny, hard and smooth ➔ They are good conductors of heat and electricity ➔ They can be moulded into different shape ➔ Economically valuable ➔ Generally hard, tough and shiny ➔ Can be stretched and compressed ➔ More reactive with water and acid - Chromite ➔ Chromite gives hardness and electrical resistance to steel ➔ It is used for bridges and railway carriages ➔ It is also used as a lining in metallurgical furnaces and for making engineering tools and stainless steel etc - Iron Ore ➔ Steel making, construction and transport industry - Copper ➔ Making electrical wires and other electrical appliances, especially switches that carry current, also used in making alloys, water pipes - Manganese ➔ Used in making dry batteries, paints. It is a vital alloy in steel making, flares and flashbulbs - Bauxite ➔ Aluminium is mainly obtained from bauxite and is a valuable metal. Uses: utensils, tins, cans, etc. and many other products - Celestite ➔ Found in the cavities of sedimentary rocks. Uses: tracer bullets, fireworks, ceramics, paints and plastics Non-Metallic Materials ➔ They are softer, rougher and less shiny ➔ They break away when their shape is changed ➔ They cannot be stretched or compressed 34  MOJZA` ➔ They are poor thermal and electrical conductors ➔ Economically less valuable ➔ Less reactive with water and acid - Rock Salt ➔ Seams of rock salt vary in thickness from between 20 to 100 metres thick ➔ The rocks are white or pink in colour ➔ The salt is overlain by gypsum and clay ➔ Rock salt is used for cooking and preservative purposes and for the manufacture of soda ash, bicarbonate of soda, caustic soda and other sodas for laundry, textiles, and tanning - Brine ➔ Used in the chemical and fertiliser industry - Limestone ➔ Limestone is a major sedimentary deposit and is widespread in Pakistan ➔ It is the main raw material for cement ➔ It is also used in the manufacture of bleaching powder, glass, soap, paper, paints and lime ➔ It is used to treat sugarcane waste to produce alcohol fuel ➔ It is painted on the barks of trees to counter pests and termite attacks ➔ It is also used to aerate soil and treat salinity - Coal ➔ Pakistan has low-quality coal ➔ Coal is mainly used in brick kilns, some is used to make coke and coal briquettes and a small percentage is used for power generation ➔ It is planned to build a thermal power station to use coal from a new coalfield in Thar District - Natural Gas ➔ Domestic and industrial uses -Mineral Oil ➔ It is used as a power source, as a lubricant for machines, and as motor fuel -Gypsum ➔ Found in grey, white and pink colour ➔ It is used in the manufacture of paints, fertilisers and prefabricated boards ➔ White gypsum is used for making cement and Plaster of Paris. Spread on Saline soil to help land reclamation for farming -Marble ➔ Found in bands of white, grey, yellow and brown ➔ It is used in buildings and for making chips for flooring and decorative pieces -Clay ➔ Clays are fine-grained minerals ➔ In Pakistan, the most important industrial clays are China Clay, Fire Clay and Fuller's Earth 35  MOJZA` -Magnesium ➔ It has a high percentage of magnesia, (about 50%) ➔ It is used in the manufacture of cement, fertilisers, rayon, paper pulp, chemicals and pharmaceuticals -Sulphur ➔ Sulphur is used in chemical industries to manufacture sulphuric acid, paints, explosive materials, dyes, rayon and fertilisers Minerals and their locations Minerals Location Minerals Location Minerals Location Kalabagh Khewra Warcha Langrail Dandot Khewra Iron Ore Kohat Limestone Dandkhel Rock Salt Karak Muzaffargarh D.G Khan Kalabagh Loralai Quetta Kohala Bauxite Salt Range Sulphur Koh-i-sultan Barite Faqir Muhammad Chaghi Salt Range Kot Diji-Sukkur Chromite Kharan Gypsum Potwar Plateau China Clay Thano Bula Khan Zhob Margalla Hills Salt-range Zhob Antimony NWFP Balochistan Copper Waziristan Magnetite Zhob Sor range Daud Khel Manganese Lasbela Coal Lakhra Celestite Thanobula Khan Mach Marble Thano Bulla Khan Potwar SUI Mullagori Maneri Mineral Oil Lower Sindh Natural Pirkoh Gunjo Takar Badin Gas Khandkot Importance of Mining Industry ➔ They contribute to the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and the GNP (Gross National Product) ➔ They provide raw material for different industries ➔ They can be exported to foreign countries e.g. marble, rock salt ➔ They earn foreign exchange for the country by their export ➔ Through mining domestic requirements are fulfilled which prevents import thereby saving foreign exchange ➔ They improve Balance of Trade and Payment ➔ Reduces rural-urban migration as they are found in remote areas ➔ people get jobs in mines which prevents migration ➔ It provides employment for the people 36  MOJZA` ➔ They attract foreign investment for exploration and exploitation Effects on Environment ➔ Pollution (air, water, land, noise) ➔ Vegetation is cut down ➔ Dust, smoke are observed ➔ Blasting causes noise and vibration ➔ Depressions are caused which result in soil exposure ➔ Rock blasting causes great trouble ➔ Deformation of landscape Measures to take - Measures for Miners ➔ Special precautions as land shall be levelled ➔ Mining waste and fumes be disposed of off ➔ Miners are provided proper clothing, masks,masks, etc. Trees will be planted ➔ Alongside the mining area, housing, medical, schools, parks be provided - Make Mining Sustainable ➔ Discharge of toxic substances and the release of heat which is harmful to the environment should be checked ➔ The application of science and technology to enhance the industry's competitiveness and environmental protection ➔ Government should consider the concept of sustainable development when making policies which affect minerals and metals industry 37  MOJZA` Fishing Industry - an Issue of Sustainability - Uses Of Fish ➔ Adds 0.9% to GDP ➔ Nutritious white meat and delicious food ➔ Oil extracted provides vitamin A and D ➔ Fish waste is used to make fertiliser and poultry feed ➔ Pakistan earns about 6% of foreign exchange over fish Types Of Fishing 1. Marine Fishing ➔ Marine Fishing is practised alongside seawater of Sindh and Balochistan ➔ Sindh coast covers 30% of the coastline, while the Makran coast covers 70% of the total seaside ➔ It is mostly Practised in sea and ports and 68% of fisherman are involved in marine fishing ➔ It is classified into Subsistence and Commercial Fishing ➔ Types of Fish catch are: Sharks, Croakers, Skates, Drums, Catfish, Rays - Subsistence Fishing ➔ Catching fish for personal usage is referred as subsistence fishing ➔ Conventional techniques and methods are used, such as traditional net, a small wooden boat which travels 3-5 km deep ➔ They get a nominal catch and use baskets to collect the fish ➔ A fish farmer cannot rely on permanent source of income - Commercial Fishing ➔ Fisherman make huge profits and sell it to the market ➔ Modern methods are used such as Mechanised boats, gill-netters, ships which can go 50-60 km deep etc ➔ It is for the sole purpose of income ➔ Refrigeration facilities are available, storage is easily and effectively done - Main Fishing Centres ➔ Sindh Coast: Karachi Keamari ➔ Balochistan Coast: Jiwani Gwadar Pasni Ormara Sonmiani Gidani 38  MOJZA` 2. Inland Fishing ➔ It is a type of fishing practised inland such as in lakes, reservoirs of dams and small ponds ➔ 32 % of fisherman are involved in this - Main Fishing Centers ➔ Manchar Lake in Dadu District ➔ Kairi, Keenjhar lake, North of Thatta ➔ Haleji Lake, west of Thatta ➔ Reservoirs of Mangla and Tarbela Dam ➔ River Indus at Sukkur, Kotri and Thatta - Main Fishing Centres - Types of fishes in Inland Fishing ➔ Mahseer ➔ Palla ➔ Thalla ➔ Rahu ➔ Tront ➔ Grass carp ➔ Silverfish Fish Farming ➔ Fish Farming refers to the rearing or farming of fish, it is also known as Aquaculture ➔ Ponds are made by humans with a cemented base to avoid water loss ➔ The side of the pond is solidified mud and trees are planted for oxygen to be given to marine life 39  MOJZA` Developing the Fishing Industry ➔ Processing facilities must be increased ➔ Modern methods should be considered ➔ Provide loans to fisherman ➔ Increase storage facilities for fisherman ➔ Modern machinery must be provided to fisherman - Benefits ➔ Huge income for fisherman ➔ Production of fishes would increase in the market ➔ Increase in employment ➔ More foreign exchange - Obstacles for fishing Industry ➔ Spillage of oil from ships and domestic and industrial waste is causing harm to fishing industry ➔ Mostly Karachi fishing labour is affected by pollutants ➔ Numerous chemicals as carcinogenic qualities, toxic materials and heavy metals including cadmium, aluminium and nickel have been found in marine life. They also enter the food chain of people whose diet includes fish/seafood ➔ Extensive use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides in agriculture is another source of water pollution ➔ Overfishing of shrimps throughout the year even in breeding season leads to by catch which results in wastage ➔ Threat to Mangroves, They are a barrier to protect the coastline. These are best breeding grounds for fish and shrimps but due to decrease in mangroves, there has also been a decrease in the breeding of fish - Sustainable Fisheries ➔ The government should take these factors into consideration when developing fisheries/ fish industry ➔ Banning the use of illegal nets having small holes for catching small, growing fish ➔ Not allow foreign deep sea trawlers to operate in the Arabian Sea area under Pakistan control ➔ Maintain ecological balance by strict enforcement of laws against cutting of Mangrove forests and water pollution 40  MOJZA` Chapter 3: Power Resources Renewable & Non-Renewable Energy ➔ Renewable energy comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished) ➔ A Non-renewable energy is a natural resource which cannot be produced, grown, generated, or used on a scale which can sustain its consumption rate These resources often exist in a fixed amount, or are consumed much faster than nature can create them Fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum and natural gas) and nuclear power (uranium) are examples Non-Renewable Sources of Power Coal ➔ It is mined by shaft or adit mining ➔ Coal is transported outside from the mine on the back of miners. donkey backs or trolley ➔ It is then loaded on trucks, trolleys and railways carriages to be taken to the industries - Types of Coal ➔ Anthracite: Best quality coal with the most carbon content ➔ Bituminous: Hard coal which is easily burned ➔ Lignite: Lower quality and with high moisture and ash content. It has a low heating value ➔ Peat: Least quality coal having high vegetative matter,difficult to burn 41  MOJZA` -Uses of Coal ➔ Thermal power generation for brick making process ➔ Making cement ➔ Steel Making ➔ Used in steam engines ➔ Cooking purposes ➔ Source of energy - Why is Coal used in Pakistan? ➔ Cheap source of energy ➔ Found abundantly ➔ Oil is not affordable due to its increasing prices ➔ A substitute for energy - The Need to import Coal ➔ High Demand ➔ Coal found in Pakistan is of poor quality ➔ The production coal in Pakistan is too low, as coal seams are thin and mineral layers have a lot of faults ➔ Pakistan lacks technology, capital,and skilled labours to extract coal - Provinces where coal is found/extracted ➔ Balochistan: PMDC has opened three coal mines: Shahrig, Sor-range and Degas Coal is also found in Quetta Coal fields Coking coal is found ➔ Sindh: PMDC and Lakhra Coal Development company are engaged in coal mining and production Coal is found in lower Sindh coal fields It is of lower quality lignite ➔ Punjab: PMDC is engaged in mining coal in the Salt Range and Kalabagh areas Sub-Bituminous to lignite highly volatile coal is found deteriorates badly during storage ➔ NWFP: Private companies are working Sub-bituminous coal is found, which is a better quality coal Coal is also found in Khost, Mach, Jhimpur, Sonda, Dandot, and Harnai 42  MOJZA` Location of Petroleum, Natural Gas, Coal & Respective Coalfields Mineral Oil ➔ It is a fossil fuel known as "Black gold" ➔ It is trapped in dome shaped anticlines between two layers of non-porous rocks ➔ Once the drilling site is chosen, a derrick or drilling rip is setup ➔ The derrick is a steel structure that holds the drilling pipes and other equipment ➔ The oil is pumped up and flown by the pipelines to the refinery ➔ Crude Oil: Oil with impurities and so 36.15% is extracted ➔ Refined Oil: Oil without impurities and so 63.85% is imported 43  MOJZA` - Uses of Oil ➔ By products such as paraffin, wax, plastics, synthetic rubber, detergents, insecticides, pharmaceutical products, chemical products ➔ Bitumen for roofing and furnace oil ➔ Source of thermal power generation ➔ Used as a lubricant for machines ➔ Diesel, petrol, kerosene oil for vehicles and burning - The need to import Oil. ➔ The Oil required is 400, 000 barrels per day, while Pakistan produces 55,000 barrels per day ➔ The production of Oil in Pakistan is low, which cannot satisfy its needs ➔ With more Industrialisation and mechanisation,the demand for oil is increasing 44  MOJZA` - Transportation of Oil ➔ By land through road and rail tankers ➔ Costly and time consuming ➔ Inefficient compared to transmission by pipelines ➔ Can cause accidents and explosions ➔ Pipeline transport is more effective and environmentally friendly ➔ Oil is transported in special ships by oil ship tankers from UAE at Karachi, Keamari and Port Bin Qasim ➔ The pier helps to flow oil to upland countries and oil refineries. The PAK ARAB REFINERY COMPANY (PARCO) is located at Mehmood Kot for refining of oil ➔ WOPP (White Oil Pipeline Project) is helping to transport oil there and later the refined oil is flown to the upland areas to Caltex, Shell, Parco, Total, PSO, etc - Fields from where Oil is extracted: ➔ Punjab: Meyal Dhurnal Adhi Joya Mir Balkassar Tut ➔ Sindh: Tando Adam Ghotana Mazari Dhabi Leghari Khaskheli - Oil Refineries ➔ PRL – Pakistan Refinery Limited (Korangi, Karachi) ➔ NRL – National Refinery Limited Korangi, Karachi) ➔ Parco Refinery – Pak Arab Cooperation (Multan, Mehmood Kot) ➔ Hub Refinery – (Hub, Balochistan) ➔ Attock Refinery – Potwar Plateau Natural Gas ➔ An important fossil fuel ➔ A Cheap fuel ➔ Trapped in anticline underground ➔ It is made up of methane, ethane, propane and butane ➔ Pumped and transported mostly by pipelines ➔ Was discovered at Sui in 1952 by PPL ➔ Oil and Gas Development Corporation, established in 1961, is working on its extraction and exploration 45  MOJZA` - Transportation ➔ Transported by pipelines ➔ Cheapest and Safest way ➔ Disadvantage is that when it leaks, it causes accidents or explosions ➔ Pipeline extends to Multan, Faisalabad, Lahore, Rawalpindi and Islamabad ➔ Natural Gas is cooled at a very low temperature to turn it into liquid (LPG). LPG stands for Liquefied Petroleum Gas ➔ This can be moved from place to place in special cylinders especially in northern areas. Natural Gas can also be compressed to become CNG - Uses of Gas ➔ Domestic use: Cooking and heating ➔ Used in fertilisers ➔ Cement industry ➔ CNG for vehicles - Areas ➔ Sui, Zin, UCH, Pirkoh, Khandkot, Khanpur, Mari, Dodhak - Organisations ➔ These organisations are working for exploration and extraction of Gas and Oil SS NGPL: Sui Northern Gas Pipeline Limited SSGCL: Sui Southern Gas Pipeline Limited PARCO: Pak Arab Refinery Corporation Limited PSO: Pakistan State Oil Company Limited HDI: Hydrocarbon Development Institution of Pakistan OGDCL: Oil and Gas Development Company Limited GSP: Geological Survey of Pakistan Nuclear Energy ➔ In atomic fission, energy is released when atoms split into their constituent part ➔ In atomic fusion, energy is released when atoms fuse together ➔ Nuclear plants are based on atomic fusion ➔ Usage of heat to make steam which turns the turbines for generation of electricity ➔ Uranium is used for this purpose and is found in large amount in Pakistan ➔ KANUPP ( Karachi Nuclear Power Project) in 1971 started working with the capacity of 137 MW ➔ Chashma Nuclear Plant was made at Chashma in 1999 with the help of China - Advantages ➔ Produces more energy than all other sources ➔ Chances of Accidents are rare ➔ Contributes less to pollution compared to fuels ➔ The cost of running a Plant is cheap 46  MOJZA` - Disadvantage ➔ The rays that are produced in the reactors can cause cancer or deformation in new-born babies. ➔ Problems of reprocessing and nuclear waste ➔ Plants are very expensive to build ➔ Explosions are very dangerous and can make the neighbouring area inhabitable Thermal Energy ➔ Electricity produced by fossil fuels such as Gas, Oil, coal and nuclear energy ➔ Used in the generation of electricity by the turning of turbines ➔ Construction costs of Thermal plants are low ➔ Running costs are high ➔ Many accidents can occur Hydroelectric Power (HEP) ➔ Stations/Plants use the force of flowing water to move turbines ➔ It is best developed in Mountainous areas with high precipitation, melting of snow and low temperature ➔ The slope should be steep but low gradient ➔ Water is a renewable source ➔ HEP is known as "White Coal" ➔ Produces energy without the burning of anything ➔ Construction cost is high but running cost is low ➔ HEP is environmentally friendly ➔ Major HEP plants are Tarbela, Warsak and Mangla 47  MOJZA` Location of Thermal, Nuclear & HEP Power station - Organisations ➔ WAPDA: Water and Power Development Authority ➔ KESC: Karachi Electricity Supply Corporation ➔ IPP: Independent Private Producers Solar Energy ➔ Produced by collecting sun rays in photovoltaic cells ➔ Solar furnaces are giant mirrors to focus sun rays on a boiler ➔ Steam from the boiler is used to make electricity 48  MOJZA` ➔ Solar panels help to collect heat energy ➔ Supply power through transmission lines ➔ Used for electrification, water heating, pumping water from wells and for cooking ➔ It is safe, and environmentally friendly ➔ Limitless supply as Pakistan has 250-300 sunny days ➔ Though building costs are high, running costs are low Biogas ➔ Produced on the fermentation of cow dung when it gives off methane gas ➔ Used for cooking, heating, etc ➔ Cheapest source for energy ➔ Increases air pollution and causes diseases ➔ Gives energy to 40-80 houses ➔ Usage leads to less natural manure in fields Geothermal Power ➔ Energy is taken from the heat of Earth's core ➔ Produced from hot springs ➔ Drilling is done into the land to pump out hot water ➔ This hot water/steam is used to drive the turbines to produce energy - Advantages ➔ Renewable ➔ Provides constant supply ➔ Pollution Free ➔ Offers sustainable energy - Disadvantages ➔ High cost of construction ➔ Limitation due to natural disasters such as earthquakes or eruptions ➔ Pakistan has the potential of commercially exploitable sources of Geo-thermal energy in Himalayan regions and Chaghi area in Balochistan Plateau Tidal Power ➔ Production energy by the movement of tides ➔ Tide comes in and out once and usually twice in 24 hours. This is due to the gravitational pull of the moon ➔ Indus Deltaic creek is a great option for energy supply in Sindh - Advantages ➔ Renewable source of energy ➔ Constant supply ➔ Being relatively non-pollutant 49  MOJZA` - Disadvantages ➔ Very expensive to build ➔ Can destroy wildlife habitats ➔ Could disrupt local supply if arrangements are made for it Wave Power ➔ Wave motion is used to compress air to drive a turbine to generate electricity ➔ Makran coast has a strong wave energy ➔ Coastal cities like Gwadar, Pasni, Ormara, Gidani are being developed and can help in future energy production ➔ Building costs are high Biomass ➔ Refers to organic material, plants and vegetable matter, both living and decaying are used as a fuel ➔ Produces biofuel ➔ Gasification and fermentation are some processes used ➔ Inefficient use leads to air pollution indoors and it leads to infections like chest and lung Wind Power ➔ Use of wind to generate energy ➔ Windmills and wind pumps convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical pumps ➔ A wind turbine has a generator which converts the mechanical power into electricity ➔ Used on large scale farms ➔ A Wind Turbine is used to generate wind power ➔ A wind turbine is a three bladed wind turbine with a generator - Advantages ➔ Environmentally friendly ➔ Renewable source ➔ Are an attraction for tourism ➔ Wind turbines are available in different sizes according to requirement ➔ Can help reduce energy issues in Pakistan - Disadvantages ➔ Expensive to build ➔ Doesn't produce a constant supply of energy ➔ Wind turbines can kill birds ➔ Increases burden on land ➔ Can only be developed in mountainous and coastal areas ➔ 7500 turbines are needed to produce the same amount of energy as that of a nuclear plant 50  MOJZA` Load Shedding ➔ Load shedding occurs when the demand is more but the energy produced and supply is less ➔ Results in great economic damages - Load shedding occurs when: ➔ Many power plants are working to their full capacity ➔ During winter, the HEP decreases with reduced flow of water rivers ➔ Long transmission lines cause loss of electricity ➔ Siltation in reservoirs can cause disruption in movement of turbines ➔ Power theft on a large scale ➔ High price of fossil fuels increases the cost of electricity generation ➔ Industrialization, urbanisation and rural electrification has increased the damage - Rural Electrification ➔ To provide electricity to rural areas in rural electrification ➔ It can help in social and economic development ➔ Small scale industries are developed ➔ Standard of living will increase Sustainable Development of Power Resources ➔ Use of advanced technology can help develop renewable resources ➔ Public awareness program through media, government and private sector ➔ Avoid non-productive uses ➔ Replacement of faculty and damaged transmission lines ➔ Check strictly for power theft and wastage ➔ Preservation and conservation of non-renewable resources 51  MOJZA` Chapter 4: Agricultural Development Agriculture ➔ Agriculture is a combination of two words i.e. Agri and culture. Agri means farming and culture means practice, it means practice of farming is called agriculture ➔ Agriculture is a primary industry concerned with obtaining raw material from the ground for immediate consumption or for further processing ➔ There are three types of agriculture practised in Pakistan: Small-scale subsistence farming, cash crop farming and livestock farming ➔ All of these different types of farming operate as systems with inputs, processes and outputs Natural Inputs - Flat lands ➔ Easy use of machines ➔ Equal Distribution of water with less drainage ➔ Easy to cultivate - Soil ➔ Contains sufficient minerals for crop growth ➔ Has sufficient pore spacing ➔ The soil must be deep and must contain nitrates and phosphates - Rainfall ➔ For germination ➔ Soften the soil for ploughing \ sowing ➔ Planting seeds - Temperature ➔ For growing ➔ Warmth ➔ Ripening Human inputs - Capital ➔ To buy land and machinery 52  MOJZA` ➔ To buy seeds and chemical fertiliser - Machinery ➔ It reduces the need of labour and time consumed ➔ Efficient processes with increased output - Fertilisers ➔ Increases yield and rate of growth of plants ➔ Extension of farm - Pesticides and insecticides ➔ Kill insects, pests, and viruses ➔ Increases the output and income - Labour ➔ Carry out processes of crop cultivation like ploughing, sowing, threshing and harvesting ➔ Maintain machinery - Desi or high yielding varieties of seed ➔ Desi varieties are cheap and locally available ➔ HYV’s are pest resistant and increase yield - Irrigational facilities ➔ Meet rain shortages and reduce salinity ➔ Better water supply - Traditional or modern skills ➔ Avoid crop failure with modern methods ➔ Can do machine repairing Processes ➔ Ploughing: Farming equipment powered by bull or tractor used to turn, dig and mix the soil before planting seeds ➔ Sowing: Spreading seeds on soil by traditional or modern methods ➔ Irrigating: To supply water to farmland through tube well / channels so that crops will grow ➔ Fertilising: Adding chemicals to soil to provide nutrients to soil for promoting plant growth ➔ Weeding: Cutting of wild plants growing where they are not wanted especially among crops ➔ Threshing: To separate grains of wheat or rice from the chaff ➔ Harvesting: Cutting the crops 53  MOJZA` Outputs ➔ Crops such as rice, wheat, tobacco, maize, barley, millet, pulses, cotton, sugarcane ➔ Fruits and Vegetables ➔ Milk, meats, ghee, butter, eggs, cheese, hides, wool - Problems associated with farming ➔ Use of sprays can contaminate subsoil water ➔ Chemicals of fertilisers when it is drained out of field can cause pollution ➔ Seepage of water from canals causes water logging and salinity ➔ Water from dams in canals can be deposited ➔ Silt in fields making them less reproductive Types of farming Subsistence/ Small Scale Farming ➔ It is small scale farming ➔ Most of the inputs are natural so output varies depending on climatic conditions ➔ A farmer works with his family, sometimes labour is hired at low wages ➔ Traditional methods are used due to lack of capital to invest ➔ He uses desi seeds, natural manure, old methods of irrigation and sometimes depends on rain ➔ The output is low which is consumed by farmer and his family ➔ Any surplus is a bonus not an expectation, sold to small shops in village ➔ He then buys some animals such as goats, sheep, etc; or repairs his house ➔ Sometimes he buys fertilisers, sprays, high yield seeds or a machine ➔ Many farms in all provinces are subsistence farms ➔ 34% of these farms are less than 5 hectares so farmer needs to supplement his income from other sources e.g. carpenter, blacksmith, cobbler - Processes ➔ Ploughing by Bullocks ➔ Sowing by Labor ➔ Irrigation by Traditional methods ➔ Fertilising by Natural Manure ➔ Weeding by Labor ➔ Threshing by Labor - Problems of small size of farm ➔ Problems for inheritance to be divided among sons ➔ No research work can take place ➔ More capital is not present, No machine can be used ➔ Output is very low, Sometimes it leads to unemployment Livestock/ Pastoral Farming ➔ It is the farming in which animals are kept on a small scale or large scale 54  MOJZA` ➔ Such as goats, sheep, cattle, camels, mules, etc ➔ Every village have its grazing field shamilat where animals graze ➔ It constitutes an important part of rural life ➔ In subsistence farms animals are consumed by owners ➔ In commercial farms animals are reared for sale or obtaining of goods ➔ Livestock contribution to the national GDP is higher than that of the crops ➔ Pakistan is world’s fifth largest producer of milk - Importance of livestock farming ➔ Animals act as draught power in farming processes and transportation of material ➔ Livestock is a food source providing with milk, egg, chicken, meat etc ➔ Livestock products act as raw materials for domestic industries ➔ Livestock product forms 13% of our exports ➔ They contribute to 10% of our GDP Large Scale/ Cash Crop Farming ➔ Agricultural crops are grown for sale ➔ Crops are selected on basis of demand, yield and favourable government policies to maximise their profit ➔ To achieve it he uses more capital, practices on a large area of land, has machines, modern facilities, fertilisers, high yield seeds, sprays and extra labour is employed ➔ Output is large and stored in large warehouses ➔ It is then sold in market to earn profit which is reinvested in crops - Processes ➔ Ploughing by Tractors ➔ Sowing by Machines ➔ Irrigation by Modern Methods ➔ Fertilising by Chemical Fertilisers ➔ Weeding by Labour ➔ Threshing by Thresher ➔ Harvesting by Harvester - Types of crops Rabi crops Kharif crops Known as winter crops Known as summer crops Sown in early winters from October-November Sown in early summers from April-May Harvested in early summer from April-May Harvested in early winters from October-November Such as wheat, barley, grams, oilseeds and Such as rice, sugar cane, millets, maize and cotton pulses 55  MOJZA` Main Crops Wheat ➔ Wheat is a rabi crop ➔ It is used in manufacture of bread and a variety of baked products ➔ Canal irrigated areas of sindh and punjab are major region of growth ➔ Government have taken measures to increase wheat production such as support price, improved irrigation but still pakistan is not self sufficient in wheat because: Population is increasing rapidly Cultivable land is decreasing due to water logging and salinity - Geographical Requirements ➔ Moderate rainfall, about 1000 mm ➔ Temperature 10⁰C - 20⁰C at the time of growing and warm 25⁰C -35⁰C for ripening ➔ A little rain before the harvest swells the grain ➔ Irrigation bridges the rainfall gap ➔ It is also grown in Barani lands. ( Rainfed regions, Potwar and NWFP areas) ➔ Stiff loamy or clayey soil rich in alluvium ➔ Flat and undulating land is required - HYV Seeds ➔ Maxipak, Kohson 95, Shahkhan 95 , Wadnak 95 - Areas ➔ Punjab: Multan, Gujrat, Sialkot, Bahawalpur, Okara ➔ Sindh: Larkhana, Thar, Sukkur ➔ NWFP: Peshawar, Kohat, Mardan, Bannu ➔ Not grown in Balochistan 56  MOJZA` Area of Wheat Cultivation - Cultivation ➔ In Oct-Dec after ploughing the field, wheat seeds are sown directly into the ground ➔ Most of the farmers irrigate land twice ➔ First irrigation, one month after sowing ➔ Second irrigation one month before harvesting ➔ Harvested after three months, which is labour intensive ➔ Chaff is separated from grain, which is used for feed and mix it with mud to make storage hut ➔ Grain is stored for family consumption or sale - Importance ➔ Wheat is a staple food. Its demand is increasing with the increasing population ➔ Low grade by-products of flour are used as feed for livestock ➔ Wheat, when growth in surplus is exported to earn foreign exchange - Problems ➔ When the crop output is low, it is imported 57  MOJZA` ➔ Most parts of Pakistan where wheat is grown, are facing water logging and salinity crisis - Barani farming ➔ Wheat is cultivated in subsistence barani farms of Potwar plateau and KPK ➔ Due to lack of irrigation facilities the process is adjusted according to seasonal rainfall ➔ When the rains arrive or are about to arrive, the land is ploughed so it becomes soft ➔ Immediately after the rain, the seeds are sown and the periodic cycle of sunny weather in between light rainy days continues till the harvest ➔ Within the growing period ploughing is done (to remove weeds), if pesticides and fertilisers are available then they are added otherwise cow dung is used ➔ Lastly the harvest season must be sunny and dry Rice ➔ It is a kharif crop ➔ It is used with wheat as a major food product ➔ Rice is a major export of Pakistan therefore grown on large scale in sindh and punjab ➔ Subsistence farming of rice is practised in northern areas on terraced field ➔ Development of irrigational facilities have increased the area under rice cultivation ➔ Pakistan is emerging as major exporter of high quality basmati rice over years - Areas ➔ Punjab: Sialkot, Kasur, Okara, Gujrat ➔ Sindh: Badin, Larkana, Dadu, Thatta 58  MOJZA`