Theories Of Crime: The Predestined Actor Partner Model

THEORIES OF CRIME UNIT 2 THE PREDESTINED ACTOR PARTNER MODEL  CONTENTS 1) POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT 2) BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM 3) PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM  POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT Positivism school of thought consists of namely biolo...

THEORIES OF CRIME UNIT 2 THE PREDESTINED ACTOR PARTNER MODEL  CONTENTS 1) POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT 2) BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM 3) PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM  POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT Positivism school of thought consists of namely biological, psychological and sociological positivism Emerged in the 19th century which contrasted the ideas propounded by the classical theory of crime Links crime to external or internal influences on the individuals to commit crimes Relationship between criminal behavior and the psychological or sociological traits of the offender For example, crime is linked to the lack of parental care rather than the calculated decision of the offender Positivism employs scientific methods of observation, experimentation, and comparison  POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT Rejected the rational actor model emphasis on free will Replaced it with the doctrine of determinism: criminal behavior could be explained in terms of internal or external factors, causing people to act in a way over which they have little or no control. Thus, in some way, it is the destiny of the individual to become a criminal Humans are animals subject to the laws of nature like all other animals and it is these rather than free will or choice that must therefore govern human behavior The task of scientists interested in criminal behavior is to isolate and identify those causal forces that determine conduct and the first place they looked for such forces was in the biological constitution of the offender  POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT CONTENTIONS Criminal behavior is explained based on the character and personal backgrounds of individuals The principle of scientific determinism and criminal acts The scientific study of criminals will help to identify the factors responsible for criminality, and assist in treating or addressing such criminal behaviour, thereby reducing crime The criminal and non-criminal are different based on their physical make-up, psychological impulses, and their social environment Differences in crime causing factors = individualized treatment for criminality  POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT CRITICISMS It does not take into account human decision making abilities Flaws in their scientific methodology – non-scientific selection of samples; samples from mainly institutionalized populations, such as prisons; relatively little follow-up studies; and not clearly defining the concepts measured  POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT Biological positivism: Identify those causal forces that determine conduct and, inevitably, the first place they looked for such forces was in the biological constitution of the offender Psychological positivism: Psychiatric or personality conditions present in an individual are at the root of crime. Therefore, psychological measures could help mitigate criminal behavior Sociological positivism: How certain social, economic, political and familial factors of an individual’s life can lead to a higher propensity for crime. Mitigating crime through social reform  BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Located primarily in the work of Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri and Raffaele Garofalo. Highly influential biological criminologists – or the Italian school as they are usually collectively known – argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals and criminal behavior The first period of biological positivism Nature vs nurture; Nature – human behaviour was a product of biological influences of inborn traits, such as genes; Nurture – acquired traits, such as environmental factors; Behaviour, including criminality was seen as a result of inherited genes The second period of biological positivism Contemporary biological positivism era or the sociobiology era Sociobiology focuses on the interaction between biological factors within an individual and the influence that is exerted by the individual’s environment  BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Early biological theories Criminals represent a physical type distinct from non-criminals. Criminals are atavistic Ears of unusual size, sloping foreheads, excessively long arms, receding chins and twisted noses are indicative signs of criminality. Lombroso now classified criminals in four main categories. Born criminals are simply those who can be distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Second, insane criminals are those including idiots, imbeciles, paranoiacs, epileptics and alcoholics. Third, occasional criminals or criminaloids are those who commit crimes in response to opportunities when these might be available Fourth, criminals of passion are those motivated to commit crime because of anger, love or honour  BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Lombroso made little reference to female offenders and considered their criminality to be predominantly restricted to prostitution and abortion and observed that a man was invariably responsible for instigating their involvement in these crimes Although Lombroso’s theory on atavism did not withstand scientific tests, he was credited for: 1. Initiating the study of criminals as individuals and not the study of the crimes that they committed 2. The first criminologist to study criminals scientifically Enrico Ferri (1856–1929): Criminal behavior could be explained by studying the interaction of a range of factors: physical factors such as race, geography and temperature; individual factors such as age, sex and psychological variables; and social factors such as population, religion and culture The three criminal groups: criminals who were born bad; criminals who were insane; criminals whose criminality was a resultant effect of sets of their circumstances  BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Raffaele Garofalo (1852–1934): Because society is a ‘natural body’, crimes are offences ‘against the law of nature’ Criminal behavior is therefore unnatural The ‘rules of nature’ are the rules of right conduct revealed to human beings through their powers of reasoning Proper rules of conduct come from thinking about what rules should be allowed or prohibited and he identified acts that he argued no society could refuse to recognize as criminal and, consequently, repress by punishment Garofalo argued that these natural crimes violated two basic human sentiments which are found among people of all ages, namely the sentiments of probity and pity Pity is the sentiment of revulsion against the voluntary infliction of suffering on others Probity refers to respect for the property rights of others  BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Sheldon (1949): attempted to link physique to temperament, intelligence and offending behavior, classifying the physiques of the boys by measuring the degree to which they possessed a combination of three different body components. 1) Endomorphs tended to be soft, fat people 2) Mesomorphs were of muscular and athletic build 3) Ectomorphs had a skinny, flat and fragile physique. Sheldon concluded that most offenders tended towards mesomorphy and because the youths came from parents who were offenders, the factors that produce criminal behavior are inherited  BIOSOCIAL THEORIES Biosocial theories: An offshoot biological positivism It is distinct from the contentions of the first period of biological positivism in a variety of ways: 1. It focuses on a combination of biological factors, genetic factors or genetic inheritance, environmental factors (for instance, head injuries and toxins, such as lead poisoning), and reproductive factors for the criminal behavior of individuals 2. It does not support the contention that biology (physical traits) are responsible for crime. Rather, it argues that biological factors is one of the factors that are responsible for criminality 3. It emphasizes the impact of social environment in the development of certain traits which may result in criminal behavior the biosocial perspectives on criminal behavior is divided into three categories, namely: genetic factors, biochemical factors, and neurophysiological factors  BIOSOCIAL THEORIES GENETIC FACTORS : Criminal behaviour is hereditary just like physical features. This contention is supported by three sources, viz: criminal family studies, twin studies, and adopted children’s studies a) Criminal family studies - Rooted in the work of Dugdale (1877) Dugdale studied 709 members of the Juke family The Juke family were poor and notorious for prostitution Dugdale contended that the criminality, poverty and practice of prostitution that were displayed by the Juke family are interrelated and constant. Hence, members of the family will always be criminals Goddard (1914) studied 480 members of the Kallikak family and arrived at similar conclusions as Dugdale’s Modern biosocial theorists have debunked the hereditary thesis of criminality by arguing that there is no strong scientific link between the criminality of parents and their offspring Scientific evidence suggests that there is only a small hereditary link between the criminal behaviour of parents and that of their children  BIOSOCIAL THEORIES b) Twin studies: Based on the study of identical twins and non-identical twins and their criminal behavior Contends that identical twins, who are said to be genetically the same because they are the result of a single egg, are more likely to both exhibit criminal behavior or not Non-identical twins, who are said to be 50 per cent genetically similar only. Hence, the fact that a twin is criminal does not mean that the other twin will be criminal c) Adoption studies – argues that adopted individuals who have criminal fathers will become criminals because they inherited the genes from their fathers, even when these adopted children had little or no contact with their biological fathers  BIOSOCIAL THEORIES Biochemical factors: Explanations for criminality are mainly centred on nutrition (diet), hormones and environmental contaminants a. Nutrition (diet): Bio-criminologists argue that biochemical imbalances which result from nutrition can influence criminality Deficiency in some vitamins and minerals affect brain growth and functioning thereby leading to criminal behaviour Sodium, potassium and calcium Prisons are said to be a typical case study for the effect of diet on behaviour due to their imbalanced nutrition Chemical food substances, such as sugar, cholesterol and lead also affect human behaviour Low blood sugar, hypo-glycaemia and hyper-glycaemia are said to negatively affect human behaviour  BIOSOCIAL THEORIES b. Hormones: Hormonal imbalances have been argued to affect human behaviour. However, this argument does not have empirical backing The male sex hormone, testosterone, is said to be responsible for aggressive, which a lot of criminals exhibit. This is the reason why a lot of countries ban the importation of testosterone for body building Hormonal imbalances which occur in women during ovulation and menstruation is said to influence their criminal behavior because they tend to be irritable and aggressive during the periods. However, this line of reasoning is yet to be scientifically proven c. Environmental contaminants: pollutants or environmental contaminants, such as lead, copper, and chlorine, are said to influence criminality d. Neurophysiological factors: This is the study of brain activity. It is be believed that criminals exhibit dysfunctional neurophysiological functions Disorders, such as Minimum Brain Dysfunction (MBD), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have been linked to criminality  EYSENCK’S BIOSOCIAL THEORY OF CRIME Genetics: Genetic factors influence human behaviour but they only manifest under the influence of environmental factors or social factors Constitutional factors – criminals and non-criminals are physically different Personality – an individual’s personality is made up of three components, namely: Extroversion: this ranges from extroversion to introversion and is referred to as the E scale. Characteristics of extroversion are activeness, assertiveness, creativity, carefree attitude, dominant personality, liveliness, sensation seeking, and venturesomeness Neuroticism: this ranges from neurotic to unstable or stable and is referred to as the N scale. Characteristics of neuroticism are anxiety, depression, emotional, guilt feelings, irritability, low self- esteem, moodiness, shy and tense Psychoticism: referred to as the P scale. Characteristics of psychoticism are aggressiveness, cold and impersonal behavior, anti-social, creative, egocentric, impulsiveness, tough-mindedness, and lack of empathy. Higher the P scale of an individual, the higher his or her level of criminality  EYSENCK’S BIOSOCIAL THEORY OF CRIME Environmental influences – Eysenck argues that failed socialization is the cause of some criminal behaviour. This failure leads to immature tendencies which results in sole concern for one’s self, and the desire for immediate gratification for one’s needs. Hence, the younger people are more prone to crime because they are yet to be properly socialised  PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Causes of crime is directed to the mind and thus we encounter notions of the ‘criminal mind’ or ‘criminal personality’ There are patterns of reasoning and behavior that are specific to offenders and these remain constant regardless of their different social experiences There are three broad categories of psychological theories of crimes and the first two groupings – Psychodynamic Behavioral learning theories – Are firmly rooted in the predestined actor tradition Cognitive learning theories – Reject much of that positivist tradition by incorporating notions of creative thinking and thus choice, in many ways more akin to the rational actor model The only way to reduce or eliminate crime is to identify the psychological factors that predispose people to crime and effectively address them  PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Psychodynamic theory - Origins in the work of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) - Sexuality is present from birth and has a subsequent course of development is the fundamental basis of psychoanalysis - Freud had originally proposed that experiences of sexual seduction in childhood are the basis of all later neurosis - Human personality has three sets of interacting forces: Id or primitive biological drives Superego (conscience): Operates in the unconsciousness, comprised of values internalized through the early interactions of the person Ego (conscious personality): Balancing the demands of the Id against the inhibitions imposed by the superego, as a person responds to external influences  PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Psychodynamic theory The constant tensions and struggles that occur between the id, ego and superego is referred to as intrapsychic conflict by Freud Unresolved intrapsychic conflict results in criminality Defence mechanisms helps to keep unresolved intrapsychic conflict out of the consciousness of human beings Displacement is a type of defence mechanism that entails the transfer of repressed feelings Freud himself proposed two different models of criminal behavior: The first views certain forms of criminal activity – for example arson, shoplifting and some sexual offences – as essentially reflecting a state of mental disturbance or illness. A number of complex stages of psychic development that may easily be disrupted, leading to neuroses or severe difficulties in adults. A disturbance at one or more of these stages in childhood can lead to criminal behaviour in later life  PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Psychodynamic theory The second model proposes that offenders possess a ‘weak conscience’. The development of the conscience is of fundamental importance in the upbringing of the child. A sense of morality is closely linked to guilt Those possessing the greatest degree of unconscious ‘guilt’ are likely to be those with the strictest consciences and such people are therefore the most unlikely to engage in criminal behavior. Guilt is significantly something that results not from committing crimes, but rather from a deeply embedded feeling that develops in childhood, the outcome of the way in which the parents respond to the transgressions of the child  PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Behavioral perspective Contends that learning shapes human behavior, and human behavior is influenced by the reactions of other people to such behavior Criminality and deviance is learnt from observing such from other people, be it through real-life situations, television or films Contends that there are three explanations regarding learning experiences: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning  PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Behavioral perspective Classical conditioning – this is a process whereby a learnt behavior becomes internalized and automatic Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning (Unconditioned to conditioned stimulus, extinction) Classical conditioning is not that relevant to criminality because punishments for criminal acts are not immediately delivered by the criminal justice system Operant conditioning-Behavior can be differentially conditioned so that it occurs in response to one stimulus and not another. This type of learning is differential conditioning Antecedent conditions – these are things that precede or trigger behaviour. Changing these conditions are said to change behaviour The behaviour itself – the rewarding consequences of a behaviour increases its frequency and reinforces that behaviour The consequences of behaviour – the process of learning through consequences is known as operant or instrumental conditioning  PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Social Learning Rewards and punishment reinforce behaviour and that observing others, using them as models, also influences human behaviour Violence is learnt through a process known as modelling or imitation. Hence, people who come from homes where they observe violence being practised by their parents are likely to be violent too The three components of social learning, as agued by Albert Bandura External reinforcement (this is the basis of operant conditioning) Vicarious reinforcement (this occurs when people observe others’ behaviour being reinforced or punished) Self-reinforcement (this is similar to self-pride, wherein an individual takes pride in his/ her behaviour or has a sense of achievement about it)  PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Cognitive theories Both psychodynamic and behavioural learning theories remained committed to the central notion of psychological positivism that proposes that there are patterns of reasoning and behaviour specific to offenders that remain constant regardless of their different social experiences. The third psychological tradition has its foundations in a fundamental critique of the predestined actor model. The behavioural learning theorists had emphasized the role of environmental stimuli and overt behavioural response but failed to satisfactorily explain why people attempt to organize, make sense of and often alter the information they learn Cognitive psychologists proposed that by observing the responses made by individuals to different stimuli it is possible to draw inferences about the nature of the internal cognitive processes that produce those responses  PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Cognitive theories This group of theories emphasize the importance of the human thought process in influencing human behaviour The thought process include how we assimilate knowledge, process and choose what we do with it influences our behaviour to, either be law-abiding or criminal Lawrence Kohlberg identified three developmental stages of moral thinking and decision making – preconventional, conventional, and postconventional stages Preconventional stage – Perceived undesirable consequences of human behaviour or threat Conventional stage – The way people perceive behaviour centres on whether existing laws regard those behaviour as right or wrong Postconventional stage – People’s behaviour reflects their personal sense of morality, that is what they personally believe to be right or wrong  ACTIVITY “For criminals are now seen to have some degree of choice” Out of the two positivist explanations to criminal behavior (psychological and biological), which theory do you think best justifies the statement and why? Discuss the reason and explanation in groups using any theory.