Week 1 Classical and Positivist Criminology PDF

***Week 1*** CLASSICAL AND POSITIVIST CRIMINOLOGY\ Classical criminology - Beccaria (1764) and Bentham (1789) - Focus on the offence - Utilitarian thinking -- the greater good - Criminals, or potential criminals are all rational actors - Punishment should prevent crime and be proporti...

***Week 1*** CLASSICAL AND POSITIVIST CRIMINOLOGY\ Classical criminology - Beccaria (1764) and Bentham (1789) - Focus on the offence - Utilitarian thinking -- the greater good - Criminals, or potential criminals are all rational actors - Punishment should prevent crime and be proportional to the offence - Opposition to excessive/brutal punishment Positivist criminology - Lombroso (1876) and Ferri (1917) - Focus on the offender - Offenders are pathological - Criminal behaviour is determined by various factors - Criminals are somehow 'inferior' - Punishment/response should be about retribution or treatment of pathology BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL POSITIVISM ======================================= - Bio. Pos. has its roots in earlier positivist work but looks further than physiology - Genetic factors - 'Feeblemindedness', twin studies, adoption, chromosomal abnormality and inherited predispositions - Biochemical factors - D, testosterone, autonomic nervous system, and nutrition - Psychological theories were for a long time separate from criminology - Psychoanalysis (Freud, Bowlby) - Learning (Sutherland, Skinner, Bandura) - Differential Association, Operant conditioning, Social Learning. - Cognitive (Yochelson & Samenow, Piaget) - Biosocial (Eysenck) ANOMIE AND STRAIN (SOCIOLOGICAL POS.) ===================================== - Durkheim studied social change and social solidarity, and talked about a shift from mechanical to organic solidarity - This is about social bonds. The law exists in organic society to regulate interactions. - Crime is 'normal' in society, it functions to bring people together in its condemnation - Anomie refers to a lack of regulation that can lead to increasing crime rates (or suicide) - Merton on strain: results from absence of alignment between socially desirable aspirations and the means to achieve them. - Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism, Rebellion CHICAGO SCHOOL AND SUBCULTURES ============================== - Hugely influential centre of sociological research from the 1920s - Park, Burgess, Sutherland, Goffman, Becker, Blumer, Shaw, McKay - Focus on rapidly changing social and cultural environment (immigration, industrialization) - Shaw and McKay looked at the geographical distribution of crime -- the zonal hypothesis - The 'zone of transition' had higher delinquency levels -- and higher social disorganization - Cultural transmission of values was also an important factor (see Differential Association) - Work on subcultures developed from the Chicago School approach (US and UK) - Cohen -- gangs, status, hedonism, rejection of dominant values - British subcultural theory -- sociological criminology, youth delinquency, (non)conformity INTERACTIONISM AND LABELLING ============================ - focus more on the response to crime/deviance -- and how this may produce more deviance - labelling someone/group of people as 'deviant' we reinforce that identity - Primary and secondary deviance (Lemert) - Primary: Commission of a prohibited act - Secondary: Deviance as a result of a change in 'master status' - Outsiders and deviance (Becker) - "Social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders." - Linked to ideas of stigma (Goffman), deviancy amplification (Wilkins) and moral panics (Cohen) REALIST CRIMINOLOGY =================== LEFT REALISM - Primary focus on crime as perceived by victims - Reworks subcultural, anomie and conflict theories - Causes of crime are relative deprivation, marginalization and social injustice - Resorting to illegitimate means to achieve goals, lack of opportunity - Prioritises social justice and prevention - Key authors include John Lea and Jock Young RIGHT REALISM - Primary focus on crime as seen by official stats - Reworks genetic and individualistic theories - Causes of crime are lack of self-control, individual pathology - Innate dispositions towards criminality, welfare state creates an 'underclass', crime is a conscious choice - Prioritises order via deterrence and retribution - Key authors include Murray, Wilson & Herrnstein CONTEMPORARY CLASSICISM ======================= RATIONAL CHOICE - Cornish and Clarke (1986) - Offenders are rational, calculating actors - Cost-benefit approach to decision making - 'Bounded rationality' describes that offenders may make decisions with limited/partial knowledge - 'Crime scripts' and models of initial and continuing involvement in crime ROUTINE ACTIVITIES - Cohen and Felson (1979) - Developed in response to growing urban crime rates - Three 'ingredients' of crime - Motivated offender - Suitable target - Absence of a capable guardian - Opportunity is the key concept FEMINIST CRIMINOLOGY ==================== - Criminology (like the rest of the world really) has historically been dominated by male practitioners, and focused predominantly on male offenders - Women's offending and victimisation were both marginalized -- when present it was often through sexist and stereotyped ideas - Female criminality was more 'savage' and 'cruel' (Lombroso) -- links to idea of double deviance - The 'appreciative' stance on crime as normal (Chicago School etc) led to ignorance of women's crime because it was statistically unusual and role inappropriate (Heidensohn) - Feminist criminology should not just be an 'add women and stir' approach - How does social control impact all women -- and some groups more than others? Women are subject to control at home, in public, in work, in social policy. - Understanding these broader moral, political, social contexts can help in understanding criminality FEMINIST CRIMINOLOGY ==================== What does it mean to be a feminist criminologist? -- the short answer is that feminist criminology is a paradigm that studies and explains criminal offending and victimization, as well as institutional responses to these problems, as fundamentally gendered, and that emphasizes the importance of using the scientific knowledge we acquire from our study of these issues to influence the creation and implementation of public policy that will alleviate oppression and contribute to more equitable social relations and social structures. (Renzetti 2013) ***Sexual Violence*** Sexual violence is any unwanted sexual act or activity. This includes but is not restricted to: Rape, sexual assault, child sexual abuse (CSA), child sexual exploitation (CSE), sexual harassment, rape within marriage / relationships, forced marriage, honour-violence, female genital mutilation, trafficking, sexual exploitation, and ritual abuse. - The legal definition of sexual violence vary over time and place. - Female genital mutilation ( FGM ) is illegal in the UK. But FGM practiced in 30 countries in Africa, the Middle East and Asia. - Age of consent varies by jurisdiction across Europe and the World. - UK: Legalisation of homosexuality; decriminalised in 1967 between two men in private if both men were aged 21 or over; Age of consent since reduced from 21 to 18 (1994) to 16 (2000). - UK: Male rape and rape within marriage only part of criminal law since 1994 Sexual offences Act 2003: - Sets out the sexual acts prohibited by law. - Replaced the Sexual Offences Act (1956). - Reformed the law on sex offences to reflect changes in social attitude, bringing the existing laws regarding rape up to date and offer greater protection to children and vulnerable adults. It is an offence for anyone to have any sexual activity with a person under the **age of 16.** The age of consent is the same regardless of the gender or sexual orientation of a person and whether the sexual activity is between people of the same or different gender. The law gives [extra protection] to children under the age of 13 and provides protection to young people who are over the age of consent but under 18. For example, it is illegal: - To take, show or distribute indecent photographs of someone under the age of 18 (this is often called sexting). - To pay for or arrange sexual services of someone under the age of 18. - For a person in a position of trust (for example teachers or care workers) to engage in sexual activity with anyone under the age of 18 who is in the care of their organisation Legislation: **underage sexual activity -- and up to adulthood sexual activity, should always be seen as a *[possible]* indicator of child sexual exploitation or abuse.** **Child Sexual Abuse (CSA)** is when a child or young person is forced, or enticed, to take part in sexual activities. - No matter the level of violence, and regardless of the child's awareness of what's happening, it's child sexual abuse. It can include: - Touching or contact behaviours. - Non-touching or non-contact behaviours (including online offences **Child Sexual Exploitation (CSE)** is a type of child abuse. It happens when a young person is encouraged, or forced, to take part in sexual activity in exchange for something. - The reward might be presents, money, alcohol, or simply emotional attention. - It can happen to any child or young person (under the age of 18). - It might seem like a normal friendship or relationship to begin with. - It can happen online or offline, and without the young person being aware of it. **Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence (TFSV)** - Refers to a range of behaviours where digital technologies are used to facilitate or extend sexual violence. Types of TFSV against Children - Sexting - Grooming - Indecent Images Of Children (IIOC) Online Safety Bill (26.10.23) now includes guidance for tech companies to reduce harm to women and girls to be developed by the regulator, Ofcom. Radford, L. et al (2011): Prevalence and Perpetrators - One in 20 11--17 year-olds reported contact sexual abuse (as defined by criminal law) - Two thirds of these (or 1.3% of all under 17s) said the contact sexual abuse was **perpetrated by other children or young people under 18 years old.** - 0.7% of all children reported contact sexual abuse by an adult (7 children in every 1,000). - 80% of these were abused by an adult they knew. Young people \> Known Adults \> Strangers Diverse group in terms of their demographic and risk profiles - range in age from adolescence to pensioners - young perpetrators of IIOC: Shore - majority male - Shore: 75% male - all backgrounds and ethnicities - some will have already committed contact sexual offences against children - some will use the internet in order to abuse children either online or by attempting to meet up with them in person/ grooming - some perpetrators' abusive behaviour does not extend beyond their online behaviour - re-convicted at a lower rate than those who have committed contact sexual offences against children. - Prevalence studies at a national and international level reveal that girls are more likely to experience child sexual abuse (CSA) than boys. - The Radford (2011) study found that for all age groups (under 11s; 11-17; 18-24) girls were more likely to have experienced sexual abuse than boys. - See similar patterns: - Child Protection Data = Girls more likely to be the subject of a child protection plan for sexual abuse than boys. - GCSE (Hallett et al. 2019) - Stranger perpetrators (Gallagher et al. 2008) - The Radford (2011) study found that older children were more likely to report having experienced sexual abuse in the past year than younger children. - (Perpetrator information): The vast majority of children who experience sexual abuse were abused by someone they knew. - Sexual harassment: Any unwanted sexual behaviour - Certain behaviours captured by existing laws - \#MeToo movement : Public sexual harassment or street harassment: - One in two women and one in six men felt unsafe walking alone after dark in a quiet street near their home. - One in two women aged between 16 and 34 years experienced one form of harassment in the previous 12 months, with 38% of women aged between 16 and 34 having experienced catcalls, whistles, unwanted sexual comments or jokes, and 25% having felt that they were being followed. - Non-legislative actions to tackle public sexual harassment - **The Protection from Sex-Based Harassment in Public Bill passed (September 18 2023)** - Adds a new section, 4B of the Public Order Act 1986 - The legislation will introduce harsher sentences if someone who deliberately harasses, alarms, or distresses someone in a public place does so because of the victim's sex, with the maximum sentence increasing from six months to two years. What legally constitutes 'consent' has evolved through case law and is judged **not to be present** when it was achieved by: - The use of force or fear of force (including threats to third parties), - The victim was unconscious (including sleep), - There is impersonation of another (e.g. a complainant's husband), - The complainant is fundamentally mistaken as to the nature of the act, - The complainant did not have understanding and knowledge to decide whether to consent or resist (e.g., age, disability, illness) - The complainant was so drunk or drugged they could not consent - The communication of consent influenced by gendered expectations around sexual behaviour - Sexual scripts: 'guides' or 'parameters' which determine how one *expects* people to engage during sexual encounters to communicate their consent - "The dynamics of the traditional sexual script create a situation in which men are expected to ask women for consent, women are expected to refuse sex, at least initially, and men are expected to ignore such refusals and continue to pursue a sexual encounter" (Jozkowski & Humphreys, 2014, p. 905) - Men are the 'initiators' whereas women are viewed as the 'gatekeeper' to sexual activity who is both responsible for communicating consent and non-consent SOA has attempted to foster gender neutrality: The majority of offences can be perpetrated against and by, either gender Section 7(3) also makes clear that transgender persons are to be treated equally in regards to sexual abuse, both as victims and as perpetrators. **Rape:** an offence for a person (A) intentionally to penetrate with his penis the vagina, anus or mouth of another person (B) without that person's consent. **Assault by penetration:** where a person (A) intentionally penetrates the vagina or anus of another person (B). The offence is committed where the penetration is by a part of A's body (for example, a finger) or anything else, (for example, a bottle); where the penetration is sexual; and without that person's consent. **Causing a person to engage in sexual activity without consent:** an offence for a person (A) intentionally to cause another person (B) to engage in sexual activity without that person's consent (for example, a woman who compels a man to penetrate her or where one person forces someone else to masturbate himself) Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW): Sexual violence against adults Police recorded data Year ending March 2024 - Rise in recent reporting of sexual offences; year ending March 2022, highest level recorded. Decreased 2024 - Operation Yewtree - \#MeToo, \#TimesUp Campaigns; Reclaim These Streets - Women more likely to be victims - Men more likely to be perpetrators - For female victims of rape, the perpetrator most likely to be an **intimate partner,** whereas for male victims of rape the perpetrator most likely to be an **acquaintance** - Victim services: Similar patterns - Biological/ psychological theories. Assumption that perpetrators of crime are physiologically or psychologically distinct from those who are not criminals. Perpetrators have less self-control, abnormal personality traits. 2. Sociological theories. Focus on social contexts, societal norms and people's attitudes. Sexual violence as a learned behaviour. 3. Feminist theories. Focus on structural inequalities between men and women and how this may impact crime or society (e.g., sexual violence as a result of patriarchal society that supports violence). - Cesare Lombroso: Founder of the Italian school of positivist criminology, which argued that a criminal mind was inherited and could be identified by physical features and defects. - Modern biological theories of crime focus specifically on how different regions of the brain are responsible for thoughts, emotions, and behaviours, and how the dysfunction of these regions can cause criminality. - Argue that some individuals are predisposed to crime because of genetic, hormonal, or neurological factors that may be inherited (present at birth) OR acquired (through accident/ illness/ trauma). - Psychopathy is a clinical concept, describing an individual's lack of empathy, antisocial behaviour, and inability to control the behaviour. - Psychopathy has been extensively researched, and its association with violent behaviour has been well established (see Evans & Tully, 2016). - Sex offenders have higher prevalence of personality disorders, compared to offenders of other crimes. Those with adult victims have higher prevalence of antisocial personality disorder, compared to those with child victims (Arbanas, 2022). - Studies completed with [convicted offenders] (Hare, 1996). - Increased risk, not 'cause and effect': Most people who have some personality traits associated with psychopathy do not fulfil the criteria for full-blown psychopathy, and many people have at least some of these traits to some degree, and other people may not have any of them to a high degree. Implicated in many rapes but more for the state of intoxication of the **[victim:]** - Victim intoxication is more frequent in rapes where the two parties are casual friends or strangers and where there is little or no 'evidence' of physical force. - Significant victim intoxication is associated with a higher chance of sexual assault by a stranger. There is also a greater likelihood of rape completion with penetration. **Incapacitated assault/ rape**: Unwanted sexual act involving oral, anal or vaginal penetration that occurs after the victim [voluntarily] uses drugs or alcohol. The victim is passed out or awake but too drunk to **consent** (see Jaffe et al. 2022; and McCauley et al. 2010). Intoxication of **[perpetrator:]** - Effects on cognitive and motor skills, e.g., Disinhibition, aggression (Zinzow et al. 2015). Increased risk -- not 'cause or effect'. Not all intoxicated men perpetrate rape. The German Prevention Network "Kein Täter Werden" ("Don't offend!") Clinical definition: - A paedophile is someone who has a primary or exclusive sexual interest in prepubescent children. - Paedophilia is a sexual orientation and unlikely to change. - Explains why some individuals *are sexually attracted to* children. - Not all child sex offenders are "paedophiles" - The prevalence of paedophilia in Germany is approx. 1% (Ahlers et al. 2011) - 40% of offenders = paedophilic offenders; 60% non-paedophilic offenders, for whom the sexual abuse of the child serves as a surrogate for a sexual relationship with partners of similar age (Beier, 1998) - Not all "paedophiles" are child sex offenders. - No one should be condemned for their sexual preference, but everyone is responsible for their behaviour. The Cycle of CSA: When victims become offenders (see Plummer and Cossins, 2018). Psychological effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). - ACEs are potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood (0-17 years). - Linked to the development of serious psychopathology and maladaptive personality traits (Beach and Mitchel, 2016). - Childhood physical and sexual abuse are known to be risk factors for adult sexual aggression and linked to perpetration. CSA as a learnt behaviour: - Development and repetition of sex offenders through being sexually abused as a child - The learning of sexual aggression - Victims normalise their own experience of abuse and repeat what they have learned. - Why don't all children who are subject to such experiences become perpetrators? - Why is the cycle of abuse different for girls and boys? - Male victims = perpetrators - Female victims are at 2-13 times increased risk of sexual violence victimization in adulthood - Male victims more often direct their reactions externally, whereas female victims are more likely to internalise feelings and express them in self-destructive behaviour - Why are male victims of CSA more likely to abuse girls/ women? Point to other explanations: Early childhood experiences interact with **peer norms** and **cultural beliefs** - Looking at how gender interacts with experiences of perpetration and victimisation provides a useful context to understand sexual violence. - Feminists stress the importance of the transmission of **beliefs, values, and norms conducive to sexual violence perpetrated against women.** - Sexual violence results from the male acquisition of attitudes and vicarious learning experiences favourable to males behaving aggressively towards women and girls. - Learned '**Hegemonic masculinity**' and the socially dominant images of what it means to be a man (Connell, 2002; Hearn, 2004). - Cultural views about women and girls -- For example, the unequal power differences, cultural factors and values whereby women and girls are seen as inferior and objects for male sexual gratification ***Definitions and characteristics of DVA*** - Domestic violence and abuse encompass a range of behaviours, including physical, sexual, emotional and economic abuse - Historically viewed as a private affair until the 1970s, when feminist activism brough it to public attention - The term battered woman emerged to signify abuse against women by male partners (Tierney, 1982) - The term domestic violence and matrimonial proceedings Act 1976 had limited impact due to police discretion and sexist attitudes (Stank, 1985) Historical context and legislative changes - The establishment of the first shelter for battered women in London by Chiswick Women\'s Aid in 1971 marked a significant shift in public awareness - The 2005 gender neutral definition of the home office expanded the understanding of DVA to include all genders and relationships The Home Affairs Select Committee (1993a,b): Abuse which takes place within the context of a close relationship. In most cases, the relationship will be between partners (married, cohabiting, or otherwise) or ex-partners.... in most cases, the abuser is male and the victim female\ In 2005 the Home Office promoted a gender-neutral\ definition: Adults who are or have been intimate\ partners or family members, regardless of\ gender or sexuality\ Home office, 2012: Those aged 16 or over who are\ or have been intimate partners or family members\ regardless of gender or sexuality\ [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/u\ ](https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/u)ploads/attachment\_data/file/157800/domestic-violence-definition.pdf The Domestic Abuse Act 2021\ 'Personally connected': If they are or have been\ in an intimate relationship, married, civil\ partners, agree or have agreed to marry each\ other, have had, or have a parental relationship\ to a child or are relatives.\ The victim and perpetrator do not have to\ cohabit nor have a particular form of\ relationship.\ Intimate partners/ ex partners: Intimate\ Partner Violence (IPV) (16+)\ This definition includes both current and\ former spouses and partners\ Sibling abuse\ Adolescent to parent violence and abuse\ (APVA): Also known as parent abuse, child to\ parent abuse\ Elder abuse: Specific abuse of people over\ the age of 65\ Children under the age of 18\ years who see, or hear, or experience the\ effects of the abuse, can be victims of domestic\ abuse One in seven children and young people under the\ age of 18 will have lived with DVA at some point in\ their childhood (Women's Aid 2022)\ Witnessing DVA can lead children to develop an\ array of age-dependent negative effects including\ short and long term cognitive, behavioural and\ emotional effects, in addition to direct physical\ consequences including injuries and even death\ (Stiles, 2002; Moffitt ad Klaus-Grawe, 2013).\ Developmental difficulties are associated with a range\ of poor outcomes in later life, including mental and\ physical health problems, criminal justice contact, and\ socioeconomic adversity (Whitten et al., 2022)\ Children exposed to DVA are more likely to either\ experience or perpetrate DVA as adults (Stiles, 2002 Above the gates of hell is the warning that all who enter should abandon hope. Less\ dire, but to the same effect, is the warning given to those who try to define terrorism.'\ (Tucker 1997: 51)\ 'Terrorism is the use or threat of action, both in and outside of the UK, designed to\ influence any international government organisation or to intimidate the public. It must\ also be for the purpose of advancing a political, religious, racial or ideological cause.'\ (Terrorism Act 2000) Government plans in\ 2023 to define 'glorifying\ of terrorism' could in\ theory criminalise\ Scottish rugby fans Fussey and Richards (2008) claim there are four key differences between crime and terrorism:\ Ideology -- motivated by allegiance to some ideology (could be one of many)\ Symbolism -- intended to communicate a message to certain audiences\ Process -- protracted and elaborate planning process (often)\ Grievance -- shared sense of wrongdoing leading to conflict OW 'NEW' IS TERRORISM?\ Not new at all! (see Laqueur 1987)\ Before the 1960s, most terrorist activities were fairly localized\ By which we mean within countries\ This links to globalisation\ Transportation\ Communication\ These developments have contributed to a change in the nature and scale of\ terrorism TERRORISM PREVALENCE\ From 2013-2023, terrorist attacks killed an average of 25,894 people per year\ In 2018, 32,944 people were killed in 8,113 attacks\ Terrorism tends to be very geographically-focused\ Burkina Faso is top of the global terror index for 2023. In 2022 it was Afghanistan\ The Global Terror Index indicates countries most affected by terrorism based on number of terrorist\ incidents, number of fatalities, number of injuries and total property damage costs\ In 2020, there were 1,722 attacks in Afghanistan (that's nearly 5 per day)\ 95% of deaths in 2017 occurred in the Middle East, Africa or South Asia\ Public concern about terrorism is high -- in many places, more than 50% people say they are concerned\ about being a victim 'OLD' VS 'NEW' TERRORISM\ "The IRA, with very few exceptions, did not want to die, they did not\ want to cause mass casualties and they gave warnings. None of the\ three apply to the group of people with whom we are now in\ opposition. The circumstances have changed. The quality and\ quantity of the threat has changed."\ (Sir Ian Blair, Hansard Debates 2007) CHALLENGES POST-9/11 AND 7/7\ The current UK threat level is 'Substantial' -- 'an attack is likely'\ Low -- Moderate -- Substantial -- Severe -- Critical\ CBRN: Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear\ A willingness to use these weapons leads to increased fear\ The use of suicide attacks and the use of vehicles as weapons\ Increased attacks on UK cyberspace\ The aims of terror attacks have changed -- a key aim to cause mass casualties without warning TERRORISM AND THE OFFENDER\ Who is the offender? The line is blurred.\ Are they a terrorist -- or an activist, a freedom fighter, a militant, a guerilla soldier?\ You will hear all these terms used at different times in the news.\ Can they be several simultaneously?\ Underpinning this is our belief about the legitimacy of their actions\ Is it just the primary perpetrator...or also those who assis TERRORISM AND THE VICTIM\ Generally a little under-researched\ There are direct and indirect victims of terrorism\ Ipsos MORI poll post-7/7: [https://www.ipsos.com/en-uk/post-london-bombings-survey\ ](https://www.ipsos.com/en-uk/post-london-bombings-survey) 51% thought it very likely there would be another attack in the near future\ 39% had stopped taking their children into the city\ Victims of counter-terrorism\ Hillyard's 'Suspect Communities' (1993)\ Pantazis and Pemberton's 'From the Old to the New Suspect Communities' (2009)\ Greer's 'Suspect Muslim Community' (2010) TYPES OF TERRORISM\ Ethno-nationalist terrorism\ Eta, Spain\ Ideological terrorism\ Red Brigade, Italy\ Religio-political terrorism\ Hamas, Palestine\ al-Qaeda and ISIS -- but consider 'pseudo-state' status?\ Single issue terrorism\ Environmentalism, abortion and animal rights (e.g. ALF) RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY\ Cornish and Clarke's (1986) ideas about cost-benefit analysis in criminal offences\ Crenshaw (1998) argues terrorism is not pathological\ Why do some groups find terrorist activity useful, and others do not?\ Is it a last resort? Have they seen it work for others and copycat them -- the 'contagion effect'?\ Do terrorists react to changing risk environments?\ Is the decision to take part in terrorist activity based on perceived outcomes?\ Or the existence of government counter-terrorist strategies?\ Even the most extreme forms of behaviour can follow an internal, strategic logic GAME THEORY\ There is a strategic, two-way, bargaining relationship between terrorists and governments\ Individual decision-making is based on the options available and a prediction of how others\ will act in a given situation\ Strengths:\ Treats actions as interdependent, rather than seeing one side as passive\ Operates within groups as well as between groups\ Evidence suggests rationality by both parties, which is key (e.g. metal detectors)\ Applicable to any kind of hostage negotiations or threats/demands\ Neither side has all the information, so uncertainty and learning are key PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES\ Piven (2002) argues there are psychological traits that cannot be explained by political injustice\ Low self-esteem, Lack of empathy, Paranoid tendencies, Injured narcissism, Pre-occupation with\ power\ Mental illness among terrorists? Not credible.\ Demause (2002) suggests the roots of terrorism lie in 'extremely abusive families of terrorists'\ But his analysis is based on abuse suffered by girls -- most terrorist offenders are male\ Lyons and Harbinson (1986) suggest terrorists are actually psychologically healthy and stable\ Terrorist activities requires logical thought, calculation, meticulous planning, forward-thinking 26\ SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES\ Based on work around inter-group behaviour\ Group membership involves a reflexive sense of in-group favouritism vs out-group\ Radicalisation is an important theme here -- how does one come to identify with terror groups?\ Silke (2008) -- terrorists see themselves as heroically working for the benefit of others\ They are the victims of out-group aggression\ Sykes and Matza's (1957) techniques of neutralisation may also apply here\ Appeal to higher loyalties -- I was doing it to protect my community\ Condemnation of the condemners -- We are victimised by them 27\ STRAIN, ANOMIE AND GLOBALISATION\ Sociological research emphasises the social conditions that lead to terrorism\ Durkheim and anomie -- rapid social change, alienation and frustration\ Combined with ideas of globalisation, these ideas are still very relevant today\ Terrorism as 'acting out' the pain of modernisation and social change\ But terrorist offenders aren't necessarily from economically or politically disenfranchised\ groups\ Some will be well educated and affluent individuals\ Nassar (2004) says terrorism breeds in the gap between expectations and achievements\ With peaceful means to resolve anomic strain, terrorism would not survive ***Hate crime*** Definitions: - A criminal act motivated by prejudice or hate against a particular group Types of hate crimes - Categorised into various types: religious, racist, homophobic, transphobic and disablist. - Some jurisdictions recognise additional categories, e.g misogynistic hate crime and hate crime against sex workers Academic perspective - Viewed as a social construct (Jacobs and potter 1998) - Gerstenfeld 2004 -- the importance of the victims group affiliation in defending hate crime Legal definitions and frameworks Official definition - Association of chief police officers 2005 -- a hate incident is perceived by the victim as motivated by prejudice, while a hate crime is a criminal offence - Macpherson 1999 -- defines a racist incident as any incident perceived to be racist by the victim or others Victim-centred approaches - Petrosino 2003 -- focuses on victimisation of minorities by the majority - Ray 2011 highlights the bias elements, defining hate crime as those targeting individuals based on specific characteristics Political and social context - Sheffield 1995 -- discusses the political motivations behind hate violence, linking it to broader social and political ideologies - Perry 2001 -- describes hate crime as a mechanism of power and oppression, reinforcing social hierarchies Perpetrators of Hate Crime Biological explanations - The amygdala is linked to unconscious prejudice, fear and aggression, influencing hate crime behaviour Psychological factors - Hormones like oxytocin can increase trust but also aggression towards others - Personality traits such as right wing authoritarianism and social dominace orientation are associated with prejudice. Social psychological factors - Groups identity and threat perception - Identity fusion Swann et al 2009 - Integrated threat theory Stephan and stephan 2000 - Real threats -- concerns for potentially negative material outcomes - Symbolic threats -- perceived threats to the dominant groups norms, values or beliefs Threat, shame, anxiety and anger Ray et all 2004 - They were racist against be but told the police it was me Gadd 2010 - Negative feelings caused by hurts that are both irreducibly personal and complexly class based Masculinity and Homophobia - Researchers have repeatedly pointed out the relationship between masculinity and homophobia - Kimmel 1994 -- masculinity is fraught from the start due to risk taking behaviours and competitions, fear of being discovered as insufficiently masculine is projected onto gay men and manifests itself as attack against them Triggered events - 9/11 - 7/7 - Brexit Everydayness of hate crime - Thrill offenders -- most common are teenagers in a group looking for a thrill. Often left their local area to look for a victim based on their differences - Defensive offenders -- 25% of all cases - Mission offenders -- they want to eliminate groups who they see as evil or inferior to them - Retaliatory offenders -- revenge offences, offering just dessert Victims Effects of hate crimes - One of the justifications for extra punishment - Individuals -- distinct/ more significant harm for other victims - Specific groups -- message crime ***Fraud*** Definitions -- any crime which uses deception as its principal modus operandi wells 2012 Fraud is the obtaining of financial advantages or causing of loss by implicit or explicit deception, it is the mechanism through which the fraudster grains an unlawful advantage or cause of unlawful loss Fraud act 2006 - Fraud by false representation - Fraud by failing to disclose information - Fraud by abuse of position Psychological impacts - Anger stress upset - Embarrassment - Stress resulting eating disorders, suicidal thoughts - Damage to relationships Victim blaming - Offenders are largely invisible due to difficulty of prosecuting them How fraud works - Mechanisms of fraud - Cialdinis 1984 psychology of persuasion ***Property crime*** The majority of all crime in society result from the illegal acquisition of property - 66% of all police recorded crime - 80% of all CSEW estimated crime Property crime incorporates several different crime types - Domestic and non domestic burglary - Theft from the person - Vehicle related theft - Shoplifting - Handling stolen goods - Fraud - Robbery - Criminal damage Changes to household security - Has been declining - Improvements in house hold security Victims - Highest unemployment areas - Urban areas - High incivility - Unemployed - Private and social renters - Aged 16-24 - Lower income households Repeat victimisation - Previous victimisation -- predictive of future burglary victimisation, lifestyle theories - Two mechanism at play -- stable, attractive attribute -- poor surveillance, empty most the time, broken security measures not repaired - Near repeat -- likelihood of victimisation increase for nearby properties Emotional impact (Shapland and Hall 2007) - Anger, shock, fear, difficulty sleeping, crying, depression, anxiety, lack of confidence, annoyance Behavioural impact (Wollinger 2019) - Victimes who are mentally strained would rather do something than nothing - Victims with private attitudes towards the home more likely to invest in safety - Older victims -- less likely to move away - Renters were more likely to move Property crime theories - Offending -- young, male, lower income - Theoretical -- strain, rational choice, routine activities - Target -- planner, searcher, opportunities Offenders (Bernasco and Luykx 2003) - Adopted a rational choice theory perspective - Attractiveness -- value of goods that can be stolen - Opportunity -- the potential to get in, get out and not be seen - Accessibility -- proximity to offenders home Situational crime prevention - Target hardening -- increase the difficulty of commission - Increase the risk of detection -- formal and informal surveillance - Displacement effects Research example Kirkhold Burglary Prevention Project (Forrester et al 1988) - 2280 homes in a local community with twice the rate of domestic burglary - Target removal -- got rid of the coin pre-payment fuel meters - Target hardening -- improved security - Increased surveillance -- cocoon neighbourhood watch - Results -- 60% reduction in incidents ***Drugs and crime*** Classifications - Misuse of drugs act 1971 - Advisory council on the misuse of drugs (ACMD) - New psychoactive substances ACT 2016 Nutt et al 2010 - Physical -- mortality, damage - Psychological -- addiction, impairment - Social -- relationship breakdown, crime Enhancement hypothesis