TKT Summary PDF

TKT SUMMARY UNIT 5 - READING Is one of the 4 language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking. Both listening and reading are receptive skills. Different from writing, students respond to a text and connect their knowledge of the world to the text which is...

TKT SUMMARY UNIT 5 - READING Is one of the 4 language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking. Both listening and reading are receptive skills. Different from writing, students respond to a text and connect their knowledge of the world to the text which is being presented. Reading is considered a receptive skill but not a passive skill. Different reading sub skills that can be used: a)​ Scanning - reading for specific information. Getting the meaning out of every word and out of the links or relationships between words and between sentences. b)​ Skimming - reading for gist, for global understanding. c)​ Text structure reading - understanding how certain types of text generally develop, which aids as readers will expect certain information to come in sequences. d)​ Meaning from context - reading the words around an unknown word or thinking about the situation the unknown word is used in to try and work out its meaning. Helps students understand without a reference resource. e)​ Predicting - using clues before we begin reading, to guess what a text may be about. Extensive reading - reading for pleasure, long pieces of text, for example a story or an article. Intensive Reading - In language classrooms, we ask learners to read texts so that we can examine the language they contain, to make learners more aware. UNIT 6 - WRITING Part of one of the four language skills as well. Writing and speaking (different from listening and reading) are productive skills - students produce instead of receiving. Characteristics of different text types: level of formality; different layouts; complexity of grammar; register and range of vocabulary. Subskills of writing: 1.​ Accuracy (correct use of language): spelling; writing legibly, punctuation; layouts; vocabulary; grammar; paragraphs that connect sentences correctly. 2.​ Communicating ideas: appropriate style and register; organizing ideas in a helpful way; choosing correct features of the text type; appropriate functions to express meaning (can be narrating, summarizing, requesting, etc). Parts of the writing process, that aim to improve the quality of the final product: 1.​ Drafting (first version of writing peace of text) 2.​ Editing (correcting and improving) 3.​ Proofreading (checking for mistakes in accuracy + correcting) 4.​ Re-Drafting (final version of writing) UNIT 7 - LISTENING Part of one of the four language skills as well. Listening, as reading, is a receptive skill - responding to a language instead of producing it. Listening is making sense of meaningful sounds by making use of context, language and knowledge of the world. Spoken Language vs Written Language -» less planned and less well structured than written language: spoken and written language have different features. Spoken Language: contains utterances, hesitations, sudden topic change, simple grammar and general vocabulary. We depend more on context and our understanding of the world to understand spoken language. Spoken language can also have different text types: conversations, announcements, songs (etc) -» different organization of language and info; different grammatical patterns, a particular range of vocabulary, different interaction patterns. Types of Listening -​ Listening for gist (global understanding) -​ Specific information -​ Detail (see what a speaker is expressing) Listening: In all of the types of listening it involves more than grammar, vocabulary or functions. Listening focuses also on the characteristics of spoken language; using the context and our knowledge of the world; understanding different text types; understanding different speeds of speech and accents, making sense of connected speech and using appropriate listening subskills. Authentic materials (contain all the features of real spoken language -» learners to develop strategies for dealing with the challenge of real language. Simplified texts (texts that have been made easier) -» learners build their confidence. UNIT 8 - SPEAKING Part of one of the four language skills as well. Speaking is like writing, a productive skill. Speaking subskills: »» Making use of grammar, vocabulary and functions »» Making use of register to speak appropriately »» Using features of connected speech »» Using body language »» Producing different text types »» Oral fluency (speaking at a normal speed, with little hesitation, repetition or self-correction, and with smooth use of connected speech) »» Using interactive strategies (ways of keeping people interested and involved in what we are saying). What is involved in speaking? We rely on body language (gestures, eye contact, facial expressions), functions to clarify meaning (I mean…/ what I’m trying to say is…). Intonation, word and sentence stress, accurate individual sounds, linking and contractions to help convey our meaning. Fluency, accuracy and appropriacy also play a major part in successful oral communication. We also need to consider the question of formality or informality - depending on the situation we use different vocabulary and structures. UNIT 10 - EXPOSURE AND FOCUS ON FORM Exposure: by being exposed to a language we learn it automatically (how children learn their first language). Focus on form: needed beyond exposure for adults to learn a foreign language, needing to focus on its form and to actively use the language to interact. The three ways we learn a language 1- Language acquisition: the stage of picking up a language, with exposure to the language. Reading and hearing language that is rich in variety, interesting and graded for the learner. 2- Silent period: reading and listening to things many times, working out the meaning and form. 3- Interactive practice: by engaging with other people, making use of things such as paraphrasing to communicate. Learners experiment with the language by trying structures, chunks and vocabulary. 4 - Focusing on the form: learners pay attention to the meaning of the language and its features (pronunciation, word order, affixes, spelling, grammatical structures).  Learning styles and methods that were used in the PAST A)​ GrammarTranslation method -» focused only on grammar and translating texts. B)​ Structural Approach -» focused only on learning and practising structures. C)​ Communicative Approaches -» focused on using language fluently in communication. Methods of learning: the overview Oral Situational Language Teaching - Language is a set of structures, related to situations, where the students learn through memorization and habit formation. ​ Activity types: based on repetition, substitution drills, avoiding translation and grammatical explanation. Learners should never be allowed to make a mistake. Audiolingual - Language is a system of rule-governed structures hierarchically arranged. The main objective is a native-speaker mastery, achieved by the control of the structures of sound, form and order over symbols of language. ​ Activity types: based on habit formation; skills are learned more effectively of oral precedes written - analogy not analysis. Communicative - Language is a system for the expression of meaning, primary function is interaction and communication. Carries out meaningful tasks and uses language which is meaningful to the learner to promote learning. ​ Activity types: Engage learners in communication with information sharing, negotiation of meaning and interaction. Total Physical Response (TPR) - A structuralist grammar based view of language, where the L2 learning is the same as L1 learning. Comprehension before production is imprinted through carrying out commands (head, shoulders, knees and toes task with smaller children for example), which contributes to a reduction of stress. ​ Activity types: Imperative drills to elicit physical actions. The Silent Way - Functional vocabulary and core structure are key to the spirit of the language. L1 and L2 learning processes are different, L2 learning is a cognitive process. First comes a silent awareness followed by an active trial.  ​ Activity types: Learners respond to commands, questions and visual cues. Activities encourage and shape oral responses without grammatical explanation for modeling by the teacher. Community Language Learning - Language is more than a system for communication. It involves the whole person, culture, educational, developmental and communicative processes. ​ Activity types: Translation, group work, recording, transcription, reflection and observation, listening and free conversation. The Natural Approach - The essence of language is meaning. Vocabulary, not grammar, is the heart of language. There are two ways of L2 language development: “acquisition” - a natural subconscious process and “learning” - a conscious process. Learning cannot lead to acquisition. ​ Activity types: Activities that allow comprehensible input about things in the here and now. Focus is on meaning not form. UNIT 12 - DIFFERENCES BETWEEN L1 AND L2 LEARNING L1 (Learning first language) and L2 ( Learning a second language) are going to be different mainly in terms of age. UNIT 15 - APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING Learners are different from one another (in learning style, age, personality, etc.). Some may like to analyse language, for example; some may hate doing that. Some may love to take risks and communicate, others may prefer not to make mistakes. It is useful for teachers to find out about their learners’ learning styles, learning needs and expectations, and match their teaching to them. Teachers can do this by varying their teaching style, approaches, materials, topics, method of correction, etc.  UNIT 15 - APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING Communicative approaches - language is a tool to communicate meaning that we learn language best by using it in communicative activities that focus on fluency. Differences between Structural Approach and Task Based Learning (TBL) a)​ View of language Structural Approach: Language is a system of structures used to communicate meaning. TBL: Language is a tool for communicating meaning through use of functions, vocabulary, structures, discourse. b)​ View of language learning Structural Approach: Language is learnt through controlled practice of simpler structures, then more complicated ones. Mistakes should be avoided. TBL: Language is learnt by using it. c)​ Classroom Practice Structural Approach: Oral skills are learnt before written skills. Structures are practiced in controlled conditions. TBL: Classroom activities are based around a series of problem-solving tasks. To solve the problems, learners need to communicate. Grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation may or may not be focused on in class after the task is completed. Among the teaching methods that have been a success, they share some common characteristics such as PPP (presentation, practice, production). METHODS THAT CAN BE USED PPP (Presentation, practice and production) View of language: grammatical structures and functions are the most important aspect of language. View of language learning: language is learnt by first seeing a new language in a context which shows its meaning, practicing it in controlled and guided conditions, then using it in freer conditions which give the learner less language support. Classroom practices: The syllabus focuses on grammatical structures or functions. Lessons move from the presentation stage to the practice stage to the production stage. Learners should not be allowed to make mistakes during the practice stage. The teacher inputs language (provides examples and gives information about it), and guides students. The learners are guided by the teacher and do not make decisions about what or how to learn. Typical activities are situational presentations and miming at the presentation stage, drills at the controlled practice stage, role-plays and information-gap activities at the production stage. LEXICAL APPROACH View of language: vocabulary is the most important aspect of language, that consists of things such as collocations, idioms, and fixed expressions. View of language learning:language is learnt by learning chunks as whole and complete units. Chunks need to be noticed by learners in order to be learnt. Classroom practices: The syllabus focuses on lexis. Learners work with authentic written or spoken texts in the classroom. Learners are given activities which encourage them to notice chunks in texts, e.g. noting them down, underlining them. After noticing chunks, learners are asked to carry out tasks which will involve them in using the chunks. FUNCTIONAL APPROACH View of language: functions are the most important aspect of language. View of language learning: same as PPP. Classroom activities: The syllabus focuses on functions usually graded according to their frequency of use in practical daily life and to learners’ communicative needs. The Functional Approach does not have any typical practices of its own. It often makes use of PPP stages in lessons, or of communicative activities. CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING (CLIL) View of language: Language serves to communicate meaning. All aspects of language help communicate meaning, e.g. skills, discourse, lexis, grammar, functions. View of language learning: Language is learnt mainly through acquisition and through using it. Language does not need to be obviously focused on. Language is learnt best when you use language to learn something else. Classroom activities: The syllabus is based on learning about the subject matter and cognitive (thinking and learning) skills related to a school subject, e.g. math, history, art. The school subject is taught in the L2 (L3/L4). The specific kinds of language learnt are the language needed for learning about the subject. Lessons focus on the subject rather than on language. So, nowadays with all the teaching methods available, what do we choose? -​ Teachers tend to use all the methods during their lessons, not limiting themselves to only one way of teaching. This ‘mix and match’ approach is called an eclectic approach, i.e. an approach which mixes techniques from different approaches. Why choose an eclectic approach? -​ Different methods focus on different aspects of the language and students have different ways of learning, so using only one teaching method won’t assure the teacher that all of the students thrive academically on it. UNIT 16 - PRESENTATION TECHNIQUES AND INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITIES TBL and PPP lessons - When considering which approach we should use, we need to realize that different techniques work different aspects for the language. PPP style lesson - Example We can find a presentation (by the teacher) of the target language in a situational presentation (context). To check if students have an acquired previous knowledge of structures or vocabulary, the teacher can use some eliciting of such things. During the exercises we can use choral drilling and a restrictive controlled practice since we want the students to use the new language they acquired during the lesson. To see if students comprehend or have any questions rely on CCQ’s. Task based learning lesson - Example Usually the aim of the lesson is to complete a task, the teacher might begin by giving some context on the topic (puts in a situation which shows its meaning). Teacher and students discuss any problematic language that is needed for the task. Finally, the task is given to reach consolidation of the language. Advantages and disadvantages of using these teaching methods PPP approach advantages: -​ Focuses directly on both the meaning or use and form of target language and gives students an opportunity to practice language in a safe learning environment where it is difficult to make mistakes: a confidence-building approach for students. PPP approach disadvantages: -​ Makes students learn language items they may not be interested in or ready to learn, and gives them few opportunities to really use the language for communication. TBL approach advantages: allows students to find new language when they want to, and to use language experimentally and creatively for real communication. Puts second language learners in a situation which is quite similar to the one in which children learn their first language. TBL approach disadvantages: Some learners may find this approach to language learning exciting and challenging. Others may wish for more guidance and structure to help them. Other ways of presenting new language: Comprehension of a text (reading) or of a listening activity, if it’s a text the students can be asked to underline examples of the target language in the text and then work out the meaning. -» guided discovery to present target language. UNIT 17 - PRACTICE ACTIVITIES AND TASKS FOR LANGUAGE AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Types of activities and range of freedom for the student: A - Controlled activities: gives students practice in accuracy and form of language, students can make a few mistakes. Used to guide students to use the target language (for example drills which can be choral or individual and can be substitution or transformation drills). B - Free activities: allow students to use any language to complete a task. The teacher may not be able to predict what language the students will use, and so can’t use these activities to give practice in a specific language. These activities focus on fluency, giving students practice in recalling and joining together the language they know and giving them opportunities to try to interact and communicate. Discussions, problem-solving activities, sharing or comparing ideas, information or experiences (etc) C - Freer activities: use a combination of predictable and unpredictable language. Provide repeated practice of target language, guiding students to use a correct form, for example: role-plays; information gap activities; surveys. Language-focused lessons and how to connect different types of activities: 1 Presentation -» controlled practice activities -» freer practice activities 2 Lead-in -» tasks -» presentation -» further tasks UNIT 19 - PLANNING AND PREPARING A LESSON OR SEQUENCE OF LESSONS Aims: describe what we want learners to learn or be able to do (or do better) at the end of a lesson, a sequence (i.e. a series) of lessons or a whole course. a)​ Main aim: describes the most important thing we want the learners to achieve in a lesson or sequence of lessons. For example, if the main aim is to teach a new language, the lesson plan should also include an example of the target language we are planning to teach. It can also include the learner’s objectives/ outcomes. b)​ Subsidiary aims: show the language or skills learners must be able to use well in order to achieve the main aim of the lesson. usually contain language that is already known to the learners. c)​ Stage aims: deceive the particular purpose of each stage of the lesson. d)​ Personal aims: show what we as teachers would like to improve or focus on in our teaching. It helps to improve the way we handle materials and teaching aids. What can we find in a lesson plan? Aims (all of the ones referred before); procedures (what teachers and learners do at each stage of the lesson); timing of the different stages; organization of the classroom; selection of materials or activities.  UNIT 20 - IDENTIFYING THE DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF A LESSON PLAN Important things to consider when doing a lesson plan: Building variety: how we can use different activity types, language skills and interaction patterns. Learners of all ages need variety, but this is especially important for younger learners, who need frequent changes of activity. Possibilities for a lesson plan: A lesson plan can include stages which we can leave out if necessary. Keep it simple: It’s a good idea to keep lesson plans as simple as possible, so notes are better than full sentences, and there’s no need to describe every step in great detail. Example  UNIT 27 - USING LANGUAGE APPROPRIATELY FOR A RANGE OF CLASSROOM FUNCTIONS Appropriate language for classroom functions -» Classroom functions are the purposes for which we use language in the classroom. These functions are many and varied, for example explaining and instructing. For each classroom function there are different exponents we can use. The choice of exponent depends on the learning context and purpose, the learners’ needs, their age and level. When we choose language that is right for the situation and our audience, we say that we use language appropriately. Functions and exponents of teacher language (example text) 1.​ Getting learners attention - Line 1 -» Getting students’ attention Line 1, 2, 5 and 16 -» Instruction: The teacher gives learners instructions throughout the teaching sequence: before they start, during the activity (the instructions at this point are about non-linguistic behaviour) and at the end as a reminder. The language of instructions often uses the imperative, even with higher-level / older learners. Line 13 and 15 -» Modelling: The teacher models (gives a clear example of the target language) at two points in this teaching sequence. It is important, when we model language orally, that we say only what we want learners to repeat, as the teacher does here. Line 5 and 15 -» Encouraging Line 8 -» Nominating Line 8 and 9 -» Prompting: can be quite similar to encouraging, we provide words, phrases, ideas or even time to help the learner continue or remember what to say. Overall: during the classes it’s important to grade the language to the students level; be aware of the level of formality or informality for the classroom and to apply sequencing which means, to use language in a logical order. UNIT 30 - TEACHER ROLES The teachers' roles will depend equally on the students' needs and their learning styles. What can be and how can we do it? We can be planners before the lesson, rapport builders during the warm-up and lead-in phase, language resources during the language input and practice phase, monitors during role-play, pairwork activities or writing, and assessors during the lesson, both formally and informally, and after the lesson when we are correcting learners’ work. Methods and teacher roles: the role of the teacher will change depending on which method they choose to use. Things to consider when applying these roles: -​ Use of appropriate roles depending on the method being applied. -​ Effective classroom management. -​ Setting out classroom routines and codes of conduct in which students take turns participating and listening to other contributions. -​ Adapting the roles of the teacher to the students needs. -​ UNIT 31 - GROUPING LEARNERS Grouping learners: what kind of class dynamic are we going to use for each exercise in the different stages of the lesson plan. The interaction patterns can be: ​ Whole class: the teacher leads the class and the learners focus on the teacher. The teacher is able to manage the class and in activities it enables all the students to practice the language at the same time. ​ Open pairs: two learners do a pairwork activity in front of the class. ​ Closed pairs: learners all do an activity at the same time working with a partner. Provides students with opportunities for developing longer turns and fluency through interaction ​ Alone work: gives students a chance to work at their own pace and to focus and organise their thoughts. ​ Group(s) / Team(s): provides students with opportunities for developing longer turns and fluency through interaction. ​ Mingles: enables all the students to practise the language at the same time. Choosing incorrect/unbalanced groups: can result in problems in the classroom.. Overall, it’s important to have a balance and variety of learner groupings in any one lesson. It’s important to remember some things: -​ All classes are mixed ability: students are at different points in their language learning, have different learning strengths and different intelligences. -​ When grouping students in young learner classes, it is important to consider their cognitive and physical development. -​ Most of the time learners work well together in different groupings, but sometimes individual learner characteristics mean that some learners find it difficult to work together, e.g. one learner is shy and another is quite dominant. -​ It is useful to include a variety of interaction patterns in a lesson to keep the students interested and motivated and to give them different kinds of practice. UNIT 32 - CORRECTING LEARNERS ​ It is important to be aware of the range of correction techniques and strategies available in the classroom. We choose the technique appropriate for the teaching approach, the learning purpose, the activity, the learner and the context. ​ Over-correction can result in learners not wanting to say anything in class because they are afraid of making mistakes. So we choose carefully what to correct and what to ignore. ​ Indicating mistakes and slips to learners so that they can self- or peer-correct will help them become more autonomous in their learning. ​ We can try to extend our range of correction techniques and strategies. If we use the same technique all the time, for example echo correcting, learners will not have opportunities to correct themselves or become aware of their own errors. ​ Concept questions can be a way of checking if learners have made an error of use rather than form. ​ When several learners make the same significant mistake during one or more lessons it sometimes means that the class needs further practice with that area of language in future lessons. Types of corrections that can be used: A)​ Time Lines: We can draw a timeline on the board to show learners the relationship between the use of a verb tense and the time or aspect. B)​ Finger correction: This shows learners where in an utterance they have made a mistake. We can indicate where the mistake is without speaking and prompt learners to self-correct. C)​ Gestures or Facial expressions: Are useful when we do not want to interrupt learners, but still want to show them that they have made a slip. D)​ Phonemic symbols: When learners are familiar with phonemic symbols, we can use them to focus on mispronounced sounds by pointing at the relevant symbols on the phonemic chart or writing the relevant symbol on the board. E)​ Echo correcting: Means repeating what a learner says with rising intonation. F)​ Delayed Correction: As we monitor fluency activities we can make a note of any serious mistakes we hear and then correct them as an activity on the board for example. G)​ Peer and self-correction H)​Reformulating: They correct the mistake by repeating the utterance correctly, without drawing the child’s attention to the mistake. I)​ Recasting: Sometimes we recast a student utterance by rewording it and saying it back to the learner in its improved form, for example the student says ‘I am not of the same opinion as my friend’ and the teacher says ‘Oh, you mean you don’t agree with him’. UNIT 33 - GIVING FEEDBACK ​ Wherever possible, feedback should be balanced, focused and helpful. It needs to be balanced so that there is comment on positive aspects of a learner’s work as well as areas he/she needs to improve; focused so that the learner knows exactly what the good points are and what the problems are; helpful so that the learner knows what steps to take to improve. This is particularly important for weaker or less confident learners. ​ Feedback can be given at different stages of a lesson, for example at the beginning of the lesson when we comment on work we have marked, during an activity, while we monitor learners doing pairwork or group work, at the end of  an activity when we tell learners how they did, or correct their common errors at the end of or after the lesson when we are marking some written work. ​ During class or individual feedback it is possible to revisit or recycle language that learners are having problems with, by providing learners with written exercises, or by including the language for review in an oral activity in the following lesson. Besides the teacher feedback we can also practice peer feedback - Peer feedback can be oral or written, and can cover the same focus areas as teacher feedback. Peer feedback is useful for all learners. The learners who give the feedback reflect on (think about) the work their classmates have done.