Thinking PDF 2024-25

Chapter 7 Thinking After reading this chapter, you would be able to describe the nature of thinking and reasoning, demonstrate an understanding of some cognitive processes involved in...

Chapter 7 Thinking After reading this chapter, you would be able to describe the nature of thinking and reasoning, demonstrate an understanding of some cognitive processes involved in problem solving and decision-making, understand the nature and process of creative thinking and learn ways of enhancing it, understand the relationship between language and thought, and describe the process of language development and its use. Contents Introduction Nature of Thinking Building Blocks of Thought Culture and Thinking (Box 7.1) The Processes of Thinking Problem Solving Reasoning Decision-making Nature and Process of Creative Thinking Nature of Creative Thinking Lateral Thinking (Box 7.2) Process of Creative Thinking But whatever the process, the result is Strategies for Creative Thinking wonderful, gradually from naming an Thought and Language object we advance step-by-step until Development of Language and Language Use we have traversed the vast difference Bilingualism and Multilingualism (Box 7.3) between our first stammered syllable Key Terms and the sweep of thought in a Summary line of Shakespeare. Review Questions Project Ideas – Helen Keller 2024-25  Introduction Think for a moment: how many times and in what ways you are using the word ‘think’ in your day-to-day conversations. Sometimes probably, you use it as a synonym to remember (I can’t think of her name), pay attention (think about it ) or convey uncertainty (I think today my friend will visit me). ‘Think’ has a wide range of meanings which cover a number of psychological processes. However, in psychology, thinking is a core subject area with an independent existence and a meaning of its own. In this chapter, we will discuss thinking as a mental activity directed at solving a problem, making inferences, judging certain facts, and deciding and choosing between options. Further, the nature and characteristics of creative thinking, what it involves and how it can be developed will also be discussed. Have you ever seen a small child building a tower with blocks or sand? The child would build a tower, dismantle it, make another one and so on and so forth. While doing this, the child sometimes talks to herself or himself. The speech would primarily include the steps s/he is following or want to follow (“not this”, “a little small”, “a tree at the back”), evaluation of the design (“nice”). You also might have experienced talking to yourself while solving a problem. Why do we talk while we think? What is the relationship between language and thought? In this chapter, we shall also be discussing the development of language and the relationship between language and thought. Before starting our discussion on thinking, it is necessary to discuss thinking as the base of human cognition. Thinking is mostly organised and goal NATURE OF THINKING directed. All day-to-day activities, ranging from Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities cooking to solving a math problem have a goal. or processes and is unique to human beings. One desires to reach the goal by planning, It involves manipulation and analysis of recalling the steps that one has already information received from the environment. followed in the past if the task is familiar or For example, while seeing a painting, you are inferring strategies if the task is new. not simply focusing on the colour of the Thinking is an internal mental process, painting or the lines and strokes, rather you which can be inferred from overt behaviour. are going beyond the given text in interpreting If you see a chess player engrossed in thinking its meaning and you are trying to relate the for several minutes before making a move, you information to your existing knowledge. cannot observe what he is thinking. You can Understanding of the painting involves simply infer what he was thinking or what creation of new meaning that is added to your strategies he was trying to evaluate, from his knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a higher next move. mental process through which we manipulate and analyse the acquired or existing Building Blocks of Thought information. Such manipulation and analysis We already know that thinking relies on occur by means of abstracting, reasoning, knowledge we already possess. Such imagining, problem solving, judging, and knowledge is represented either in the form decision-making. of mental images or words. People usually 110 Psychology 2024-25 think by means of mental images or words. experience in reading a map, remembering the Suppose you are travelling by road to reach a different places and subsequently locating place, which you had visited long back. You them in a physical map in your examination. would try to use the visual representation of In doing this, you were mostly forming and the street and other places. On the other hand, using mental images. An image is a mental when you want to buy a storybook your choice representation of a sensory experience; it would depend upon your knowledge about can be used to think about things, places, different authors, themes, etc. Here, your and events. You can try out Activity 7.1, which thinking is based on words or concepts. We demonstrates how images are formed. shall first discuss mental image and then move on to concepts as the base of human thought. Activity 7.1 Mental Image Give a map, like the following in Fig.7.2a, to your friend to observe for 2 minutes and tell her/him Suppose, I ask you to imagine a cat sitting that later on s/he will be asked to locate the on a tree with its tail slightly raised and marked places in a blank map. Then present a curved. You would most likely try to form a map, like the one in Fig.7.2b, with no indications visual image of the whole situation, of the different places. Ask your friend to locate the places s/he has seen in the first map. Then something similar to what the girl in the ask how s/he was able to locate the places. S/he picture is doing (Fig.7.1). Or think of another will probably be able to tell you the way s/he formed an image of the whole situation. Fig.7.2a : A Map Showing Places Fig.7.1 : The Girl forming a Mental Image situation where you are asked to imagine Concepts yourself standing in front of the Taj Mahal Whenever we come across an object or event and describe what you see. While doing this familiar or unfamiliar, we try to identify the you are actually forming a visual image of object or event by extracting its characteristics, the event. You are probably trying to see matching it with the already existing category through your mind’s eye, just like the way of objects and events. For example, when we you would see a picture. Why is it useful to see an apple, we categorise it as fruit, when draw a map while giving directions to we see a table we categorise it as furniture, someone? Try to remember your earlier when we see a dog we categorise it as an 111 Chapter 7 Thinking 2024-25  would also conclude that it would bite strangers. A concept thus, is a mental representation of a category. It refers to a class of objects, ideas or events that share common properties. Why do we need to form concepts? Concept formation helps us in organising our knowledge so that whenever we need to access our knowledge, we can do it with less time and effort. It is something similar to what we do to organise our things at home. Children who are very systematic and organised, put their things such as books, note books, pen, pencil, and other accessories in specific places in their cupboard, so that in the morning, they don’t have to struggle to Fig.7.2b : A Blank Map Up Side Down find a particular book or the geometry box. animal, and so on. When we see a new object, In the library too you have seen books we try to look for its characteristics, match organised as per subject areas and labelled them with characteristics of an existing so that you would be able to find them quickly category, and if matching is perfect we give it with less effort. Thus, for making our thought the name of that category. For example, while process quick and efficient, we form concepts walking on the road you come across an and categorise objects and events. unfamiliar quadruped of a very small size, with a face like a dog, wagging its tail and barking THE PROCESSES OF THINKING at strangers. You would no doubt identify it as a dog and probably think that it is of a new So far we have been discussing what we mean breed, which you have never seen before. You by thinking and what is the nature of thinking. B o x 7.1 Culture and Thinking Our beliefs, values, and social practices influence object separately which is called “analytical thinking”. the way we think. In a study conducted on Asian people (Japanese, Chinese, Koreans) think more American and Asian students, pictures like the about the relationship between objects and following (underwater scene) were used. The backgrounds, which is called “holistic thinking”. subjects were asked to have a look at the scene for a brief period and then were asked to describe what they saw. The American students focussed on the biggest, brightest, and most outstanding features (for example, “the large fish swimming to the right”). In contrast, the Japanese students focussed on the background (for example, “the bottom was rocky” or “the water was green”). Based on these kinds of findings, researchers concluded that Americans usually analyse each 112 Psychology 2024-25 We also learnt that thinking uses mental friend who has just arrived at your place. In images and concepts as the base. Now we will problem solving there is an initial state (i.e. the discuss how thinking proceeds in a particular problem) and there is an end state (the goal). area: problem solving. These two anchors are connected by means of several steps or mental operations. Table 7.1 would clarify your understanding of various PROBLEM SOLVING steps through which one solves a problem. How do we proceed while repairing a broken You can try out the problems given in Activity 7.2 with your friends and observe how cycle, or planning a summer tour or patching they are approaching the problem. You can ask up a broken friendship? In some cases the them the steps they follow while solving these solution is reached quickly as in repair of a problems. bicycle based on immediately available cues whereas others are more complex and require Obstacles to Solving Problems time and effort. Problem solving is thinking that is goal-directed. Almost all our day-to-day Two major obstacles to solving a problem are activities are directed towards a goal. Here it is mental set and lack of motivation. important to know that problems are not always in the form of obstacles or hurdles that Mental Set one faces. It could be any simple activity that Mental set is a tendency of a person to solve you perform to reach a defined goal, for problems by following already tried mental example, preparing a quick snack for your operations or steps. Prior success with a Table 7.1 Mental Operations I nvolved in Solving a PProblem roblem Let us look at the problem of organising a play in school on the occasion of Teachers’ Day. Problem solving would involve the following sequence. Mental operation Nature of problem 1. Identify the problem A week is left for teachers’ day and you are given the task of organising a play. 2. Represent the problem Organising a play would involve identification of an appropriate theme, screening of actors, actresses, arranging money, etc. 3. Plan the solution: Search and survey various available themes for Set sub-goals a play, and consult teachers and friends who have the expertise. The play to be decided, based on such considerations as cost, duration, suitability for the occasion, etc. 4. Evaluate all solutions (plays) Collect all the information/stage rehearsal. 5. Select one solution and execute it Compare and verify the various options to get the best solution (the play). 6. Evaluate the outcome If the play (solution) is appreciated, think about the steps you have followed for future reference for yourself as well as for your friends. 7. Rethink and redefine problems After this special occasion you can still think about and solutions ways to plan a better play in future. 113 Chapter 7 Thinking 2024-25  experienced this while solving mathematical Activity 7.2 problems. After completing a couple of questions, you form an idea of the steps that Problem 1 Anagrams : Rearrange the letters to form a word. are required to solve these questions and (You can also construct some similar words) subsequently you go on following the same NAGMARA steps, until a point where you fail. At this point BOLMPER you may experience difficulty in avoiding the SLEVO already used steps. Those steps would STGNIH interfere in your thought for new strategies. TOLUSONI However, in day-to-day activities we often rely Problem 2 on past experiences with similar or related Joining dots : Without lifting your pencil from the problems. paper, connect all nine dots by drawing four Like mental set, functional fixedness in straight lines. problem solving occurs when people fail to solve a problem because they are fixed on a thing’s usual function. If you have ever used a hardbound book to hammer a nail, then you have overcome functional fixedness. Lack of Motivation Problem 3 People might be great at solving problems, but Try out the ‘water in three bottles’ activity with your friend. all their skills and talents are of no use if they There are three bottles, A, B, and C. Bottle A are not motivated. Sometimes people give up can hold 21 ml., B can hold 127 ml., and C can easily when they encounter a problem or failure hold 3 ml. The task for your friend is to get 100 ml in implementing the first step. Therefore, there of water with the help of these three bottles. There is a need to persist in their effort to find a are six more problems like this. These seven solution. problems are given below. Problems The required The capacity of the quantity bottles in ml. REASONING A B C If you find a person desperately running on 1. 100 21 127 3 the railway platform, you could infer a number 2. 99 14 163 25 of things such as: he is running to catch the 3. 5 18 43 10 4. 21 9 42 6 train which is about to leave, he wants to see 5. 31 20 59 4 off his friend sitting in the train which is about 6. 20 23 49 3 to leave, he has left his bag in the train and 7. 25 28 76 3 wants to get in before the train leaves the (Answers are given at the end of the chapter) station. To figure out why this person is running, you could use different kinds of reasoning, deductive or inductive. particular strategy would sometimes help in Deductive and Inductive Reasoning solving a new problem. However, this tendency also creates a mental rigidity that obstructs the Since your previous experience indicates that problem solver to think of any new rules or people run on the platform to catch a train, strategies. Thus, while in some situations you would conclude that this person is getting mental set can enhance the quality and speed late and is running to catch the train. of problem solving, in other situations it The kind of reasoning that begins with an hinders problem solving. You might have assumption is called deductive reasoning. 114 Psychology 2024-25 Thus deductive reasoning begins with making conclude that the person had left his bag in a general assumption that you know or believe the train. One mistake you would probably to be true and then drawing specific conclusion make here is jumping to a conclusion without based on this assumption. In other words, it is knowing all possible facts. reasoning from general to particular. Your From the above discussion we can conclude general assumption is that people run on the that reasoning is the process of gathering and railway platform only when they are getting late analysing information to arrive at conclusions. for the train. The man is running on the In this sense, reasoning is also a form of platform. Therefore, he is getting late for the problem solving. The goal is to determine what train. One mistake that you are making (and conclusion can be drawn from certain given generally people do commit such mistakes in information. deductive reasoning) is that you (they) assume Most cases of scientific reasoning are but do not always know if the basic statement inductive in nature. Scientists and even or assumption is true. If the base information lay persons consider a number of instances is not true, i.e. people also run on the platform and try to determine what general rule covers for other reasons then your conclusion them all. Think of yourself using your would be invalid or wrong. Look at the mouse knowledge of problem solving steps discussed in Fig.7.3. earlier in planning for a play, or conducting a project. Your inductive reasoning is being applied here. legs, Analogy is another form of reasoning ve four , ats h a legs which involves four parts, A is to B as C is to All c ave four a cat D with the relation between the first two parts Ih I am efore ther being the same as the relation between the last two. For example, water is to fish as air is to human; white is to snow as black is to coal. Analogies can be helpful in solving problems. They help us in identifying and visualising the salient attributes of an object or event, which would otherwise go unnoticed. D ECISION - MAKING Fig.7.3 : Is the mouse making a True and Valid Conclusion? Inductive and deductive reasonings allow us Another way to figure out why the man is to make judgments. In judgment we draw running on the platform is to use inductive conclusions, form opinions, evaluate events, reasoning. Sometimes you would analyse other objects, based on knowledge and available possible reasons and observe what the man is evidences. Consider this example, the man is actually doing and then draw a conclusion very talkative, likes to mix with people, can about his behaviour. Reasoning, that is based convince others with ease — he would be most on specific facts and observation, is called suitable for a salesperson’s job. Our judgment inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is of this person is based on the specific drawing a general conclusion based on characteristics of an expert salesperson. Here particular observation. In the earlier example, we will discuss how we make decisions and you observed the other person’s subsequent judgments. action or actions such as: entering into the Sometimes judgments are automatic and train compartment and returning with a bag. require no conscious effort by the person and Based on your observation you would occur as a matter of habit, for example, 115 Chapter 7 Thinking 2024-25 applying brakes on seeing the red light. differ. In real life situations we take quick However, evaluating a novel or a literary text decisions and therefore, it is not possible always requires reference to your past knowledge and to evaluate every situation thoroughly and experience. Judging the beauty of a painting exhaustively. would involve your personal preferences. Thus our judgments are not independent of our NATURE AND PROCESS OF CREATIVE beliefs and attitudes. We also make changes in our judgments based on newly acquired THINKING information. Consider this example. A new You might have wondered at times how some teacher joins the school, students make on- one for the first time, thought of acts like the-spot judgment of the teacher as being very planting a seed, or devising a wheel, or strict. However, in subsequent classes, they decorating the walls of caves with drawings, closely interact with the teacher and make etc. Perhaps not satisfied with the old ways of changes in their evaluation. Now they carrying out day-to-day activities, such judge the teacher to be extremely student- persons thought of something original. There friendly. are countless others whose creativity has led Many of the problems you solve each day to the present day scientific and technological require you to make decisions. What to wear progress that we now enjoy. Music, painting, for the party? What to eat for dinner? What to poetry, and other forms of art that give us say to your friend? The answer to all these lies pleasure and joy, are all products of creative in picking or choosing one of several choices. thinking. In decision-making, we sometimes choose among options based on choices of personal You might have heard about A.D. Karve, a significance. Judgment and decision-making botanist from our country, who got the UK’s are interrelated processes. In decision-making top energy award for devising a smokeless the problem before us is to choose among ‘Chullah’. He converted dry, useless sugarcane alternatives by evaluating the cost and benefit leaves into clean fuel. You might have also associated with each alternative. For example, heard of Class XI student Ashish Panwar, who when you have the option to choose between won a bronze medal for assembling a five feet psychology and economics as subjects in tall robot at the First International Robotics Class XI, your decision would be based upon Olympiad held at Glasgow. These are only a your interest, future prospects, availability of few examples of creativity. Try to think of some books, efficiency of teachers, etc. You could other examples of creativity in different fields. evaluate them by talking to seniors and faculty It is important to remember that creative members and attending a few classes, etc. thinking is not always expressed in Decision-making differs from other types of extraordinary work. One does not have to be a problem solving. In decision-making we scientist or an artist to be a creative thinker. already know the various solutions or choices Everyone has the potential to be creative. and one has to be selected. Suppose your Creative thinking can be applied in almost any friend is a very good player of badminton. S/ area of human activity at different levels. It he is getting an opportunity to play at the state could be reflected in activities like writing, level. At the same time the final examination is teaching, cooking, enacting roles, story telling, approaching and s/he needs to study hard for conversation, dialogues, asking questions, it. S/he will have to choose between two options, playing games, trying to solve day-to-day practising for badminton or studying for the problems, organising activities, helping others final examination. In this situation her/his resolve conflicts, and so on. This concept of decision will be based upon evaluation of all ‘Everyday Creativity’, which is reflected in one’s possible outcomes. way of perceiving thinking and problem solving, You would observe that people differ in is different from the ‘special talent creativity’ their priorities and therefore their decisions will seen in outstanding creative achievements. 116 Psychology 2024-25 Nature of Creative Thinking many answers. A few such questions are given below: Creative thinking is distinguished from other What are the various uses of cloth? types of thinking by the fact that it involves What improvements will you suggest in a the production of novel and original ideas or chair so that it becomes more comfortable solutions to problems. Sometimes, creative and aesthetically pleasing? thinking is understood just as a new way of What will happen if examinations are thinking or thinking differently. However, it is abolished in schools? important to know that, besides novelty, Answers to the above questions require originality is also an important characteristic divergent thinking which is an open-ended of creative thinking. Every year new models thinking where the individual can think of of household appliances, tape-recorders, cars, different answers to the questions or problems scooters, and television sets produced may not in terms of her/his experiences. Such kind of be original unless unique features are added thinking helps in producing novel and original to these products. Creative thinking thus ideas. refers to originality and uniqueness of ideas Divergent thinking abilities generally or solutions that did not previously exist. include fluency, flexibility, originality, and Creative thinking is also generally elaboration. characterised by what Bruner calls “effective Fluency is the ability to produce many surprise”. If the product or idea is unusual, ideas for a given task or a problem. The the response of most who experience it is one more ideas a person produces, the higher of instant surprise or of being startled. his fluency ability. For example, more the Another important criterion that number of uses of a paper cup, more would characterises creative thinking is its be the fluency. appropriateness in a particular context. Flexibility indicates variety in thinking. It Simply thinking of being different without any may be thinking of different uses of an purpose, doing things in one’s own ways, being object, or different interpretation of a non-conformist, indulging in fantasy without picture, story or different ways of solving a any purpose or coming out with a bizarre idea, problem. In case of uses of a paper cup, for is at times mistaken for creative thinking. example, one may give an idea to use it as Researchers tend to agree that thinking is said a container or to draw a circle, etc. to be creative when it is reality-oriented, appropriate, constructive, and socially desirable. J.P. Guilford, a pioneer in creativity research, proposed two types of thinking: convergent and divergent. Convergent thinking refers to thinking that is required to solve problems which have only one correct answer. The mind converges to the correct solution. To illustrate, look at the question given below. It is based on a number series, where you have to find the next number. Only one right answer is expected. Q. 3,6,9….. what will come next? Ans. 12. Now you try to think of certain questions for which there is no one right answer but Fig.7.4 : Thinking Divergently 117 Chapter 7 Thinking 2024-25  B o x 7.2 Lateral Thinking Edward de Bono has used the term ‘lateral the ‘Six thinking hats’ technique to stimulate different thinking’ to what Guilford termed as divergent modes of thinking. One can put on or take off these thinking. He makes a distinction between vertical hats according to the type of thinking required to be thinking and lateral thinking. Vertical thinking used. White hat means gathering information, facts, involves mental operations that move in a straight figures, and filling gaps in information. Red hat covers line back and forth between lower and higher expression of feelings, and emotions on the subject. level concepts whereas lateral thinking involves Black hat represents judgment, caution and logic. looking for alternative ways of defining and Yellow hat covers thinking on what will work and interpreting problems. He states “vertical (logical) why it will be beneficial. Green hat is for creativity, thinking digs the same hole deeper, i.e. thinking alternatives and changes. Blue hat represents deeper in the same direction; lateral thinking is thinking about the process and not the ideas as such. concerned with digging a hole in another place”. The ‘six thinking hats’ reflect different perspectives De Bono suggests that lateral thinking can help from which an issue or problem is viewed. The make mental leaps and is likely to create a technique can be used individually as well as in number of ways of thinking. De Bono developed groups. Originality is the ability to produce ideas are important for creative thinking. Divergent that are rare or unusual by seeing new thinking is essential in generating a wide range relationships, combining old ideas with new of ideas. Convergent thinking is important to ones, looking at things from different identify the most useful or appropriate idea. perspectives etc. Research has shown that fluency and flexibility are the necessary Activity 7.3 conditions for originality. The more and varied ideas one produces, the greater the Frame five different kinds of questions requiring divergent thinking on issues and problems related likelihood of original ideas. to traffic management/pollution/corruption/ Elaboration is the ability that enables a illiteracy/poverty. Share and discuss in the class. person to go into details and workout implications of new ideas. Divergent thinking abilities facilitate Process of Creative Thinking generation of a variety of ideas which may not seem to be related. For example, what are the In recent years, more and more attention has common ideas for enhancing food production? been given to the way the human mind The likely answers would be related to quality operates. Research has made it clear that thinking of new and unusual ideas involve of seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, and so on. If more than a flash of insight. There are stages someone thinks of cultivation in a desert for before and after the new ideas come. extracting protein from weeds, it would be a The starting point in creative process is the remote idea. The association here is between need to think or bring out something new ‘food production’ and ‘desert’ or ‘weeds’. which initiates the effort. Not everyone Ordinarily, we do not associate these together. experiences this need, as one can be happy and But, if we let our mind free to seek new and contented, in carrying out routine work. The remote associations, a number of combination need for search of new ideas and solutions of ideas may arise out of which one or two may arises from sensing problems and gaps in turn out to be original. You must remember information. The process of creative thinking that both convergent and divergent thinking begins with the preparation stage that 118 Psychology 2024-25  solutions are tested and judged. Here, convergent thinking plays its role in selecting the appropriate idea or solution that works. Strategies for Creative Thinking Research on characteristics of creative people has revealed that there are certain attitudes, dispositions, and skills which facilitate creative thinking. Here are some strategies to help you enhance your creative thinking abilities and skills: Become more aware and sensitive to be able to notice and respond to feelings, sights, sounds, textures around you. Spot problems, missing information, anomalies, gaps, deficiencies, and so on. Try to notice Fig.7.5 : The Creative Process contradictions and incompleteness in requires one to understand the task or problem situations that others may not do. For this, in hand, analyse the problem, and become cultivate the habit of wider reading, aware of the background facts and related exposure to a variety of information, and information. The process evokes curiosity and develop the art of asking questions, excitement to think more and more in different pondering over the mysteries of situations directions. The person tries to look at the task and objects. or problem from different angles and Generate as many ideas, responses, viewpoints. Here, divergent thinking abilities solutions or suggestions on a given task or discussed earlier play their role to help one situation to increase your flow of thoughts. Try deliberately to look for multiple angles extend in new directions. of a task and situation to increase flexibility Coming back to the process, when the in your thinking. It could be, for example, person is trying to generate alternative ideas thinking of alternative arrangements of and trying to view the problem or task from an furniture in a room to generate more space, unusual perspective, there may be a feeling of different ways of conversing with people, getting stuck. One may even get disgusted with looking for costs and benefits of a course failure and may leave the problem or the task of study or career, looking for ways of for sometime. This is the stage of incubation. dealing with an angry friend, helping Research shows that creative ideas may not others, etc. occur immediately during incubation when the Osborn’s Brainstorming technique can be individual is not consciously thinking about used to increase fluency and flexibility of the problem but seeking relaxation from ideas to open-ended situations. conscious effort. They may occur or strike Brainstorming is based on the principle when a person is doing something else, for that producing ideas should be kept example, going to sleep, waking up, taking a separate from the evaluation of their worth. bath or just walking along. Followed by The basic assumption is to let the minds incubation is the stage of illumination - the think freely and the tendency to put ‘Aha’! or ‘I have found it’ experience, the judgment on the worth of ideas may be moment we normally associate with emergence postponed, i.e. imagination should be given of creative ideas. There usually is, a feeling of priority over judgment till all the ideas are excitement, even satisfaction, of having found exhausted. This helps in increasing the a creative idea. Last is the stage of verification fluency of ideas and piling up alternatives. when the worth or appropriateness of ideas or Brainstorming can be practised by playing 119 Chapter 7 Thinking 2024-25  brainstorming games with family members (linguistic determinism). Experimental and friends keeping its principles in mind. evidence, however, maintains that it is possible Use of checklists and questions often to have the same level or quality of thoughts provide a new twist for ideas like, What in all languages depending upon the other changes? What else? In how many availability of linguistic categories and ways could it be done? What could be the structures. Some thoughts may be easier in other uses of this object? and so on. one language compared to another. Thought as Determinant of Language THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE The noted Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget Till now, we have discussed the nature and believed that thought not only determines meaning of thinking and how thinking is based language, but also precedes it. Piaget argued on images and concepts. We have also that children form an internal representation discussed the various processes of thought. of the world through thinking. For example, Throughout the discussion did you feel that when children see something and later copy words or language are essential to express what it (a process called imitation), thinking does we think? This section examines the take place, which does not involve language. relationship between language and thought: A child’s observation of other’s behaviour and that language determines thought, that thought imitation of the same behaviour, no doubt determines language, and that thought and involves thinking but not language. Language language have different origins. Let us examine is just one of the vehicles of thinking. As actions these three viewpoints in some detail. become internalised, language may affect children’s range of symbolic thinking but is not Language as Determinant of Thought necessary for the origins of thought. Piaget In Hindi and other Indian languages we use a believed that though language can be taught number of different words for various kinship to children, understanding of the words require relationships. We have different terms for knowledge of the underlying concepts (i.e. mother’s brother, father’s elder brother, father’s thinking). Thus, thought is basic, and younger brother, mother’s sister’s husband, necessary if language is to be understood. father’s sister’s husband, and so on. An English person uses just one word uncle to describe Different Origins of Language and all these kinship relationships. In the English Thought language there are dozens of words for colours The Russian psychologist, Lev Vyogotsky, whereas some tribal languages have only two argued that thoughts and language develop to four colour terms. Do such differences in a child separately until about two years of matter for how we think? Does an Indian child age, when they merge. Before two years thought find it easier to think about and differentiate is preverbal and is experienced more in action between various kinship relationships (Piaget’s sensory motor stage). The child’s compared to her English-speaking utterances are more automatic reflexes - crying counterpart? Does our thinking process when uncomfortable - than thought-based. depend on how we describe it in our language? Around two years of age, the child expresses Benjamin Lee Whorf was of the view that thought verbally and her/his speech reflects language determines the contents of thought. rationality. Now children are able to This view is known as linguistic relativity manipulate thoughts using soundless speech. hypothesis. In its strong version, this He believed that during this period the hypothesis holds what and how individuals development of language and thinking become can possibly think is determined by the interdependent; the development of conceptual language and linguistic categories they use thinking depends upon the quality of inner 120 Psychology 2024-25 speech and vice versa. Thought is used without be discussing the salient features of language language when the vehicle of thinking is non- acquisition. verbal such as visual or movement-related. You have been using language all your life. Language is used without thought when Now try to define accurately what it is that you expressing feelings or exchanging pleasantries, have been using. Language consists of a system for example “Good morning! How are you?” of symbols organised by means of certain rules “Very well, I am fine”. When the two functions that we use to communicate with each other. overlap, they can be used together to produce You will notice that language has three basic verbal thought and rational speech. characteristics: (a) the presence of symbols, (b) a set of rules to organise these symbols, and (c) communication. Here we shall be discussing DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE AND these three characteristics of language. LANGUAGE USE The first characteristic of language is that it involves symbols. Symbols represent Meaning and Nature of Language something or someone else, for example, the In the previous section we discussed the place where you live is called ‘home’, the place relationship between language and thought. where you study is called ‘school’, the thing In this section, we will examine how human that you eat is called ‘food’. Words like home, beings acquire and use language in different school, food, and numerous other words do age groups. Think for a moment: what would not in themselves carry any meaning. When have happened if you did not have a language these words are associated with some objects/ to express whatever you wanted to say? In the events they attain meaning and we begin absence of language you will not be able to recognising those objects/events, etc. with communicate your ideas and feelings, nor will particular words (symbols). We use symbols you have the opportunity to know or have while thinking. access to what others think and feel. As a child The second characteristic of language is when you first started saying “ma..ma..ma.”, that it involves rules. While combining two or it not only gave you tremendous boost to more words we usually follow a definite and continue repeating this activity but also was a accepted order of presenting these words. For great moment of joy for your parents and other example, one would most likely say “I am going care-givers. Slowly you learnt to say ‘ma’ and to school” and not “school am going I”. ‘papa’ and sometime later combined two or The third characteristic of language is that more words to communicate your needs, it is used for communicating one’s thought, feelings, and thoughts. You learnt words ideas, intentions, and feelings to others. On appropriate for situations and also learnt the many occasions we communicate through the rules of putting these words in sentences. use of our body parts, called gestures or Initially you learnt to communicate in the postures. This type of communication is called language being used at home (usually the non-verbal communication. Some people who mother-tongue), went to school and learnt the cannot use oral speech, like the ones with formal language of instruction (in many cases severe hearing and speech problems, this language is different from the mother- communicate through signs. Sign language is tongue), and were promoted to higher grades also a form of language. and learnt other languages. If you look back, you will realise that your journey from crying Development of Language and saying “ma..ma..ma” to the attainment of Language is a complex system and unique to mastery in not one but many languages, has human beings. Psychologists have tried to been a fascinating one. In this section we shall teach sign language, use of symbols to 121 Chapter 7 Thinking 2024-25 chimpanzees, dolphins, parrots, etc. But it is and vowel sounds (for example, da—, aa—, observed that, human language is more ba—). By about nine months of age these complex, creative, and spontaneous than the sounds get elaborated to strings of some sound system of communication other animals can combinations, such as ‘dadadadadada’ into learn. There is also a great deal of regularity repetitive patterns called echolalia. While the with which children all over the world seem to early babblings are random or accidental in be learning the language or languages to nature, the later babblings seem to be imitative which they are exposed. When you compare of adult voices. Children show some individual children, you find that they differ a understanding of a few words by the time they great deal in the rate of their language are six months old. Around the first birthday development as well as in how they go about (the exact age varies from child to child) most it. But when you take a general view of children enter the one-word-stage. Their first children’s acquisition of language all over the word usually contains one syllable – ma or da, world you find some predictable pattern in for instance. Gradually they move to one or more words which are combined to form whole which children proceed from almost no use of sentences or phrases. So they are called language to the point of becoming competent holophrases. When they are 18 to 20 months language users. Language develops through of age, children enter a two-word stage and some of the stages discussed below. begin to use two words together. The two-word Newborn babies and young infants make stage exemplifies telegraphic speech. Like a variety of sounds, which gradually get telegrams (got admission, send money) it modified to resemble words. The first sound contains mostly nouns and verbs. Close to their produced by babies is crying. Initial crying is third birthday, i.e. beyond two-and-a-half undifferentiated and similar across various years, children’s language development gets situations. Gradually, the pattern of crying focused on rules of the language they hear. varies in its pitch and intensity to signify How is language acquired? You must be different states such as hunger, pain, and wondering: “How do we learn to speak?” As sleepiness, etc. These differentiated crying with many other topics in psychology, the sounds gradually become more meaningful question of whether a behaviour develops as a cooing sounds (like ‘aaa’, ‘uuu’, etc.) usually result of inherited characteristics (nature) or to express happiness. from the effects of learning (nurture) has been At around six months of age children enter raised with regard to language. Most the babbling stage. Babbling involves psychologists accept that both nature and prolonged repetition of a variety of consonants nurture are important in language acquisition. B o x 7.3 Bilingualism and Multilingualism Bilingualism refers to attaining proficiency in emotional level. It is possible for individuals to have communicating through any two languages. multiple mother tongues. The Indian social context is Learning of more than two languages is referred characterised by grass root multilingualism which to as multilingualism. The term mother tongue has makes bi/multilingualism a characteristic at the levels been variously defined as one’s native language, of individual as well as society. Most Indians use more the language spoken by the individual from the than one language to communicate in various domains cradle; language ordinarily used at home; of their daily life activities. Thus, multilingualism is a language spoken by the mother; etc. However, way of life in India. Studies reveal that bilingualism/ generally the mother tongue is viewed as a multilingualism facilitates cognitive, linguistic, and language with which one identifies at the academic competence of children. 122 Psychology 2024-25  Behaviourist B.F. Skinner believed we learn built-in readiness to learn grammar helps language the same way as animals learn to explain why children acquire language so pick keys or press bars (refer to Chapter 6 on readily without direct teaching. Learning). Language development, for the behaviourists follow the learning principles, Language Use such as association (the sight of bottle with the word ‘bottle’), imitation (adults use of word As we have discussed earlier, language use “bottle”), and reinforcement (smiles and hugs involves knowing socially appropriate ways of when the child says something right). There is communication. Knowledge of vocabulary and also evidence that children produce sounds syntax of a language does not ensure proper that are appropriate to a language of the parent use of language to achieve the purpose of or care-giver and are reinforced for having done communication in a variety of social situations. so. The principle of shaping leads to successive When we use language we have various approximation of the desired responses so that pragmatic intentions such as requesting, the child eventually speaks as well as the adult. asking, thanking, demanding, etc. In order Regional differences in pronunciation and to effectively serve these social goals, language phrasing illustrate how different patterns are use must be pragmatically correct or reinforced in different areas. contextually appropriate besides being Linguist Noam Chomsky put forth the grammatical and meaningful. Children often innate proposition of development of language. have difficulty with choice of appropriate For him the rate at which children acquire utterances for politeness or for requests and words and grammar without being taught can their use of language conveys a demand or a not be explained only by learning principles. command instead of a polite request. When Children also create all sorts of sentences they children are engaged in conversations, they have never heard and, therefore, could not be also have difficulty in taking turns in speaking imitating. Children throughout the world seem and listening like adults. to have a critical period — a period when lear ning must occur if it is to occur successfully — for learning language. Children across the world also go through the same Key Terms stages of language development. Chomsky Bilingualism, Brainstor ming, Concepts, believes language development is just like Convergent thinking, Creativity, Decision- physical maturation- given adequate care, it making, Deductive reasoning, Divergent “just happens to the child”. Children are born thinking, Functional fixedness, Illumination, with “universal grammar”. They readily learn Images, Incubation, Inductive reasoning, the grammar of whatever language they hear. Judgment, Language, Mental representation, Skinner’s emphasis on learning explains Mental set, Multilingualism, Problem solving, Reasoning, Remote association, Syntax, why infants acquire the language they hear Thinking and how they add new words to their vocabularies. Chomsky’s emphasis on our 123 Chapter 7 Thinking 2024-25  Summary Thinking is a complex mental process through which we manipulate information (either acquired or stored). It is an internal process that can be inferred from behaviour. Thinking involves mental representations that are either mental images or concepts. Complex thought processes are problem solving, reasoning, decision-making, judgment, and creative thinking. Problem solving is thinking directed towards the solution of a specific problem. Mental set, functional fixedness, lack of motivation and persistence are some of the hindrances for effective problem solving. Reasoning, like problem solving, is goal directed, involves inference and can be either deductive or inductive. In making judgment, we draw conclusions, form opinions, make evaluations about objects or events. In decision-making one must choose among several available alternatives. Judgment and decision-making are interrelated processes. Creative thinking involves the production of something new and original — it may be an idea, object or solution to a problem. Developing creative thinking requires overcoming blocks to creative expression and using strategies to enhance creative thinking skills and abilities. Language is distinctly human. It consists of symbols, organised on the basis of certain rules to communicate intentions, feelings, motives, and desires among human beings. Major development in language occurs during the first two to three years of age. Language and thought are intricately related. Review Questions 1. Explain the nature of thinking. 2. What is a concept? Explain the role of concept in the thinking process. 3. Identify obstacles that one may encounter in problem solving. 4. How does reasoning help in solving problems? 5. Are judgment and decision-making interrelated processes? Explain. 6. Why is divergent thinking important in creative thinking process? 7. How can creative thinking be enhanced? 8. Does thinking take place without language? Discuss. 9. How is language acquired in human beings? Project Idea Observe children of 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years old over a period of one week. Record the speech and note how the child is learning words and how many words the child has learnt over this period. 124 Psychology 2024-25 Answers to problems in Activity 7.2 Problem 1 : ANAGRAM, PROBLEM, SOLVE, INSIGHT, SOLUTION. Problem 2 : Problem 3 : The solution for this problem is fill bottle B (127 ml) completely and then pour out water in bottle A (21 ml) to fill it completely. Now 106 ml is left in bottle B (127ml–21ml). Next pour enough water out of B to fill up C (3 ml), and then empty the bottle C by pouring out all the water from C. Now there is 103 ml of water in B and C is empty. Then again pour water from B to fill up C. Now you will be left with 100 ml of water in B. In case of the first 5 problems, the desired amount can be reached by the sequence B–A–2C. However, the 6th and 7th problems are critical. In the 6th problem, the desired amount of water is 20 ml and the capacity of the three bottles are: A can hold 23 ml, B can hold 49 ml and C can hold 3 ml. Observe how the participant is solving this problem. Most likely he would successfully solve the problem by following the already tried sequence {49–23–(2 X 3)} without even thinking or trying a simpler and quick method of pouring water from A to C. If your friend is following this procedure then you can conclude that solving the 5 problems has formed a mental set in her/his mind. The 7th problem requires a direct solution of pouring water from A to C. But the mental set is so powerful that many would fail to think of any other steps, other than the already tried one. The standard method A simpler method A case where only the simple method works Problems 1-5 Problem 6 Problem 7 125 Chapter 7 Thinking 2024-25