Psychology 100: Thinking and Memory Models

Psychology 100: Thinking, Intelligence, Language

• PSYC100 is a course offered at Koç University during Fall 2024.
• The course covers topics related to thinking, intelligence, and language.

Atkinson and Shiffrin's Modal Model of Memory

• Components of the model are long-term memory, sensory memory, short-term memory, and working memory.
• Working memory is not a component of the Atkinson & Shiffrin model.

Auditory Sensory Memory

• Echoic memory is the auditory sensory memory.

Reinforcement Schedules

• A fixed-interval reinforcement schedule delivers reinforcement after a constant time interval, regardless of the behavior.

Thinking, Problem Solving, and Reasoning

• Thinking involves mentally representing aspects of the world, including oneself, and transforming these representations to achieve goals.
• Problem solving involves cognitive processes used to overcome obstacles to achieve a goal.
• Reasoning uses cognitive processes to draw conclusions from knowledge.

Elements of Thinking

• Mental images are mental representations of stimuli and events.
• Concepts are ideas that represent stimuli, objects, and categories.
• A prototype is the best representative of a concept's category.

What is a Problem?

• A problem is a situation where an obstacle exists between a current state and a desired goal state, making a solution less obvious.
• Problems can have clear solutions or be complex. An example problem: How to manage a sitting arrangement at a wedding?

How to Solve a Problem

• Problem-solving steps include identifying the problem, representing the problem, and taking actions to reach the goal.

Problem Structure

• The structure of a problem includes the initial state (starting point), goal state (desired end point), and operations (actions to move between states).

Tower of Hanoi

• The rules of the Tower of Hanoi involve moving discs from one peg to another, subject to specific constraints that you cannot place a smaller disc on a larger one.
• The goal is to move all the discs from one peg to another.

Problem Solving Approaches

• Newell-Simon approach focuses on problem space (all possible states), which may be vast. Exploring this space for efficient solutions. An example is the means-end analysis method to move through the problem space.
• Many problem approaches exist.
• Strategies for solving problems include trial and error, algorithms, heuristics (mental shortcuts), and insight.

Why Can't We Solve Some Problems?

• Confirmation bias: focusing only on evidence supporting one's views.
• Mental sets: using old solutions that may not apply to current problems.
• Functional fixedness: focusing solely on the usual function of an object, hindering creative problem-solving.

The Gestalt Approach

• The Gestalt approach views problem solving as a process of representation and reconstruction.
• Insights can be sudden realisations of solutions. Insights are associated with reorganizing or restructuring the representation of a problem.

Creativity

• Creativity involves conceiving new solutions to problems.
• Convergent thinking is a single answer process, Divergent thinking is multiple solution process.

Creative Problem Solving: Generating Ideas

• Previous knowledge can inhibit creativity.
• Group brainstorming techniques can aid creative processes.

Intelligence

• Theories of intelligence include Spearman's g factor (general intelligence), Gardner's multiple intelligences, Sternberg's triarchic theory, Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory, and neuroscience theories.

Measuring Intelligence

• Methods for measuring intelligence include Binet's mental ability tests, Stanford-Binet and IQ tests, and Wechsler tests.

Binet's Mental Ability Test

• The French government commissioned Binet to develop tests to identify children needing school support.
• The resulting tests considered verbally based tasks.
• Norms were established by testing a large sample of different-aged children.

Stanford-Binet and IQ

• The Stanford-Binet test standardised Binet's work, establishing norms for different age groups, to determine IQ scores.
• IQ is calculated as mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. IQ = mental age/chronological age *100

Wechsler Tests

• Wechsler combined subtests from various intelligence tests, to measure cognitive abilities.
• Present tests include the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV), Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V), and Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV).

Evaluating Intelligence Tests

• Reliability refers to the test's consistency.
• Validity refers to whether a test measures what it intends to measure.

Distribution of IQ Scores

• The majority of people have an IQ score between 85 and 115.
• The average IQ is 100.

Language

• Language is a system of communication using sounds or symbols to convey feelings, thoughts, ideas, etc.
• Animals communicate in ways that can be interpreted as some sort of language.
• Human language is characterized by its unique creativity and hierarchical structure.

Studying Language

• Behaviorism approaches language development through reinforcement.
• N. Chomsky proposed that language is largely innate (genetic).
• Language structure and rules are similar, while vocabularies differ across populations.

Language and Culture

• The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that language can affect cultural perceptions of the world.

Other Cognitive Functioning

• These summaries may also touch on cognitive functions like functional fixedness, mental sets, and other helpful examples to facilitate learning and understanding.

Explore key concepts in Psychology 100, focusing on thinking, intelligence, and the modal model of memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin. This quiz covers auditory sensory memory, reinforcement schedules, and problem-solving strategies. Test your understanding of essential psychological theories and concepts.