Theory of Mind - Assuit University PDF

Faculty Accreted By the National Assuit University Authority for Quality Assurance of Theory of Mind Education and Accredtation Education and Accredtation Theory of Mind Assuit University ‫نظرية...

Faculty Accreted By the National Assuit University Authority for Quality Assurance of Theory of Mind Education and Accredtation Education and Accredtation Theory of Mind Assuit University ‫نظرية التعليم واالعتماد للعقل جامعة أسيوط‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬1( ‫صفحة‬ Outlines: 1-What is Theory of Mind? 2- How does it develop? 3- Stages of Theory of Mind 4- Cultural Differences. 5- False-Belief Tasks. 6- Theory of mind problems. 7- References Outlines: 1-What is Theory of Mind? ‫ ما هي نظرية العقل؟‬-1 :‫الخطوط العريضة‬ 2- How does it develop? ‫ كيف يتطور؟‬-2 3- Stages of Theory of Mind 4- Cultural Differences..‫ االختالفات الثقافية‬-4 ‫ مراحل نظرية العقل‬-3 5- False-Belief Tasks..‫ مهام االعتقاد الخاطئ‬-5 6- Theory of mind problems..‫ نظرية مشاكل العقل‬-6 7- References ‫ المراجع‬-7 @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬2( ‫صفحة‬ What is Theory of Mind? Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states — beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, and knowledge — to ourselves and others. Another Definition: Theory of Mind is the branch of cognitive science that investigates how we ascribe mental states to other persons and how we use the states to explain and predict the actions of those other persons. More accurately, it is the branch that investigates mindreading or mentalistic abilities. What is Theory of Mind? ‫ما هي نظرية العقل؟‬ Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states — beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, and knowledge — to ourselves and others. ‫ ألنفسنا‬- ‫ المعتقدات والنوايا والرغبات والعواطف والمعرفة‬- ‫نظرية العقل هي القدرة على إسناد الحاالت العقلية‬.‫ولآلخرين‬ Another Definition: :‫تعريف آخر‬ Theory of Mind is the branch of cognitive science that investigates how we ascribe mental states to other persons and how we use the states to explain and predict the actions of those other persons. ‫نظرية العقل هي فرع من العلوم المعرفية التي تبحث في كيفية إسناد الحاالت العقلية ألشخاص آخرين وكيف نستخدم هذه‬.‫الحاالت لشرح تصرفات هؤالء األشخاص اآلخرين والتنبؤ بها‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬3( ‫صفحة‬ More accurately, it is the branch that investigates mindreading or mentalistic abilities..‫ هو الفرع الذي يبحث في قراءة األفكار أو القدرات العقلية‬،‫وبشكل أكثر دقة‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬3( ‫صفحة‬ *“As humans we assume that others want, think, believe and the like, and thereby infer states that are not directly observable, using these states anticipatorily, to predict the behavior of others as well as our own. These inferences, which amount to a theory of mind, are to our knowledge, universal in human adults”. *Having a theory of mind allows us to understand that others have unique beliefs and desires that are different from our own, enabling us to engage in daily social interaction as we interpret the mental states and infer the behaviors of those around us. *“As humans we assume that others want, think, believe and the like, and thereby infer states that are not directly observable, using these states anticipatorily, to predict the behavior of others as well as our own. ‫ وبالتالي نستنتج حاالت ال يمكن مالحظتها‬،‫* "نحن كبشر نفترض أن اآلخرين يريدون ويفكرون ويؤمنون وما شابه ذلك‬.‫ باستخدام هذه الحاالت بشكل استباقي للتنبؤ بسلوك اآلخرين باإلضافة إلى سلوكنا‬،‫بشكل مباشر‬ These inferences, which amount to a theory of mind, are to our knowledge, universal in human adults”..‫ عالمية عند البالغين من البشر‬،‫ على حد علمنا‬،‫ هي‬،‫ التي ترقى إلى مستوى نظرية العقل‬،‫هذه االستنتاجات‬ *Having a theory of mind allows us to understand that others have unique beliefs and desires that are different from our own, enabling us to engage in daily social interaction as we interpret the mental states and infer the behaviors of those around us. ‫ مما يمكننا‬،‫*إن وجود نظرية للعقل يسمح لنا بفهم أن اآلخرين لديهم معتقدات ورغبات فريدة تختلف عن معتقداتنا ورغباتنا‬.‫من االنخراط في التفاعل االجتماعي اليومي بينما نفسر الحاالت العقلية ونستنتج سلوكيات من حولنا‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬4( ‫صفحة‬ How Does Theory of Mind Develop? We aren’t born immediately knowing that others have unique beliefs and desires that are unique from our own. It turns out that there are several developmental skills that infants need to develop their theory of mind later. These skills include the ability to comprehend the concept of attention, understand the intentions of others, and the ability to imitate others are all rungs on the ladder you must climb before reaching the platform of theory of mind. Other developmental skills necessary of theory of mind to develop include (i) pretending to be someone else (like a doctor or a cashier); (ii) understanding the causes and consequences of emotions; and (iii) understanding their people and have different likes/dislikes. How Does Theory of Mind Develop? ‫كيف تتطور نظرية العقل؟‬ We aren’t born immediately knowing that others have unique beliefs and desires that are unique from our own..‫نحن ال نولد على الفور ونحن نعلم أن اآلخرين لديهم معتقدات ورغبات فريدة تختلف عن معتقداتنا ورغباتنا‬ It turns out that there are several developmental skills that infants need to develop their theory of mind later..‫اتضح أن هناك العديد من المهارات التنموية التي يحتاجها األطفال الرضع لتطوير نظريتهم العقلية الحًقا‬ These skills include the ability to comprehend the concept of attention, understand the intentions of others, and the ability to imitate others are all rungs on the ladder you must climb before reaching the platform of theory of mind. ‫ كلها درجات في‬،‫ والقدرة على تقليد اآلخرين‬،‫ وفهم نوايا اآلخرين‬،‫وتشمل هذه المهارات القدرة على فهم مفهوم االهتمام‬.‫السلم الذي يجب عليك تسلقه قبل الوصول إلى منصة نظرية العقل‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬5( ‫صفحة‬ Other developmental skills necessary of theory of mind to develop include (i) pretending to be someone else (like a doctor or a cashier); (ii) understanding the causes and consequences of emotions; and (iii) understanding their people and have different likes/dislikes. ‫) التظاهر بأنك شخص آخر (مثل طبيب أو أمين‬1( ‫تشمل المهارات التنموية األخرى الضرورية لتطوير نظرية العقل‬ ‫عدم‬/‫) فهم األشخاص الذين يتعاملون معهم ولديهم إبداءات إعجاب‬3( ‫) فهم أسباب وعواقب العواطف؛ و‬2( ‫صندوق)؛‬.‫إعجاب مختلفة‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬5( ‫صفحة‬ Paying Attention to Other People -According to psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen, attention is one of the first underlying skill to the development of a fully-fledged theory of mind. -This involves recognizing that seeing is not merely looking, but rather we can selectively direct our attention to specific objects and people). A key example of this attention is joint attention. *Joint attention occurs when two people direct their attention towards the same thing of interest – often doing via pointing so as to direct another’s attention to the same source. -When infants understand this gesture, they are simultaneously processing another person’s mental state, recognizing that this object is something that another person thinks is of interest, thus illustrating the beginning phases of the theory of mind. Paying Attention to Other People ‫االهتمام باألشخاص اآلخرين‬ -According to psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen, attention is one of the first underlying skill to the development of a fully-fledged theory of mind..‫ فإن االنتباه هو أحد المهارات األساسية األولى لتطوير نظرية العقل الكاملة‬،‫ وفًقا لعالم النفس سايمون بارون كوهين‬- -This involves recognizing that seeing is not merely looking, but rather we can selectively direct our attention to specific objects and people)..‫ بل يمكننا توجيه انتباهنا بشكل انتقائي إلى أشياء وأشخاص محددين‬،‫ يتضمن ذلك إدراك أن الرؤية ال تعني مجرد النظر‬- A key example of this attention is joint attention..‫ومن األمثلة الرئيسية على هذا االهتمام االهتمام المشترك‬ *Joint attention occurs when two people direct their attention towards the same thing of interest – often doing via pointing so as to direct another’s attention to the same source. ‫ وغالًبا ما يتم ذلك عن‬- ‫* يحدث االهتمام المشترك عندما يقوم شخصان بتوجيه انتباههما نحو نفس الشيء محل االهتمام‬.‫طريق اإلشارة لتوجيه انتباه اآلخر إلى نفس المصدر‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬6( ‫صفحة‬ -When infants understand this gesture, they are simultaneously processing another person’s mental state, recognizing that this object is something that another person thinks is of interest, thus illustrating the beginning phases of the theory of mind. ‫ ويدركون أن هذا الشيء هو‬،‫ فإنهم يعالجون في نفس الوقت الحالة العقلية لشخص آخر‬،‫ عندما يفهم األطفال هذه اإليماءة‬-.‫ وبالتالي يوضح المراحل األولى لنظرية العقل‬،‫شيء يعتقد شخص آخر أنه مثير لالهتمام‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬6( ‫صفحة‬ Intentionality (knowing that people act according to the things they Want) A second core component that contributes to the development of the theory of mind is that of intentionality, or the understanding that others’ actions are goal-directed and arise out of unique beliefs and desires. To understand that people act in a way that is motivated by their desires (for example, I am hungry so I will reach for that apple) is to understand that other people have their own desires (she must be hungry), thus demonstrating a theory of mind, or attributing mental states to others. Intentionality (knowing that people act according to the things they Want) A second core component that contributes to the development of the theory of mind is that of intentionality, or the understanding that others’ actions are goal-directed and arise out of unique beliefs and desires. ‫القصدية (معرفة أن الناس يتصرفون وفًقا لألشياء التي يريدونها) العنصر األساسي الثاني الذي يساهم في تطوير نظرية‬.‫ الرغبات‬.‫ أو فهم أن تصرفات اآلخرين موجهة ألهداف وتنشأ من معتقدات وأفكار فريدة‬،‫العقل هو القصدية‬ To understand that people act in a way that is motivated by their desires (for example, I am hungry so I will reach for that apple) is to understand that other people have their own desires (she must be hungry), thus demonstrating a theory of mind, or attributing mental states to others. ‫ أنا جائع لذا سأصل إلى تلك التفاحة) يعني فهم أن‬،‫إن فهم أن الناس يتصرفون بطريقة تحفزهم رغباتهم (على سبيل المثال‬ ‫ أو إسناد الحاالت العقلية‬،‫ العقل‬.‫ وبالتالي إثبات النظرية‬،)‫األشخاص اآلخرين لديهم رغباتهم الخاصة (ال بد أنها جائعة‬.‫لآلخرين‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬7( ‫صفحة‬ Imitation (Copying Other People) Imitating others is a third building block of theory of mind. The ability to imitate others is to recognize recognizing that others have their own beliefs and desires. For example, bridging attention and intentionality, imitation can result when a child realizes that others direct their attention (to an object, etc.) and do so intentionally (motivated by goal-directed behavior). Internalizing these two concepts, the child then engages in imitation and may direct his or her eyes towards that specific object or scene. Imitation (Copying Other People) Imitating others is a third building block of theory of mind..‫التقليد (تقليد اآلخرين) تقليد اآلخرين هو اللبنة الثالثة لنظرية العقل‬ The ability to imitate others is to recognize recognizing that others have their own beliefs and desires..‫القدرة على تقليد اآلخرين هي االعتراف بأن اآلخرين لديهم معتقداتهم ورغباتهم الخاصة‬ For example, bridging attention and intentionality, imitation can result when a child realizes that others direct their attention (to an object, etc.) ‫ يمكن أن يحدث التقليد عندما يدرك الطفل أن اآلخرين يوجهون‬،‫ من خالل سد الفجوة بين االنتباه والقصد‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬.)‫ وما إلى ذلك‬،‫انتباههم (إلى شيء ما‬ and do so intentionally (motivated by goal-directed behavior)..)‫والقيام بذلك عن عمد (بدافع من السلوك الموجه نحو الهدف‬ Internalizing these two concepts, the child then engages in imitation and may direct his or her eyes towards that specific object or scene..‫ ينخرط الطفل بعد ذلك في التقليد وقد يوجه عينيه نحو ذلك الشيء أو المشهد المحدد‬،‫ومن خالل استيعاب هذين المفهومين‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬8( ‫صفحة‬ Stages of Theory of Mind Between ages 4-5, children really start to think about others’ thoughts and feelings, and this is when true theory of mind emerges. The actual development of the theory of mind generally follows an agreed-upon sequence of steps Stages of Theory of Mind Between ages 4-5, children really start to think about others’ thoughts and feelings, and this is when true theory of mind emerges. ‫ وهذا هو الوقت‬،‫ يبدأ األطفال فعلًيا في التفكير في أفكار اآلخرين ومشاعرهم‬،‫ سنوات‬5-4 ‫مراحل نظرية العقل بين سن‬.‫الذي تظهر فيه نظرية العقل الحقيقية‬ The actual development of the theory of mind generally follows an agreed-upon sequence of steps ‫التطور الفعلي لنظرية العقل يتبع عموًم ا سلسلة من الخطوات المتفق عليها‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬9( ‫صفحة‬ 1. Understanding “wanting”: The first step is the realization that others have diverse desires, and to get what they want, people act in different ways. 2. Understanding “thinking”: The second step is the understanding that others also have diverse beliefs about the same thing, and that people’s actions are based on what they think is going to happen. 3. Understanding that “seeing leads to knowing”: The third stage is recognizing that others have different knowledge access, and if someone hasn’t seen something, they will need extra information to understand. Understanding “wanting”: The first step is the realization that others have diverse desires, and to get what they want, people act in different ways. ‫ يتصرف الناس‬،‫ وللحصول على ما يريدون‬،‫ الخطوة األولى هي إدراك أن اآلخرين لديهم رغبات متنوعة‬:"‫فهم "الرغبة‬.‫بطرق مختلفة‬ Understanding “thinking”: The second step is the understanding that others also have diverse beliefs about the same thing, and that people’s actions are based on what they think is going to happen. ‫ وأن تصرفات األشخاص‬،‫ الخطوة الثانية هي فهم أن اآلخرين لديهم أيًض ا معتقدات متنوعة حول نفس الشيء‬:"‫فهم "التفكير‬.‫تعتمد على ما يعتقدون أنه سيحدث‬ Understanding that “seeing leads to knowing”: The third stage is recognizing that others have different knowledge access, and if someone hasn’t seen something, they will need extra information to understand. ‫ وإذا‬،‫ المرحلة الثالثة هي إدراك أن اآلخرين لديهم إمكانية وصول مختلفة إلى المعرفة‬:"‫فهم أن "الرؤية تؤدي إلى المعرفة‬.‫ فسوف يحتاج إلى معلومات إضافية لفهمه‬،‫لم ير شخص ما شيًئا ما‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬10( ‫صفحة‬ 4. Understanding “false-beliefs”: The fourth stage is being aware of the fact that others may have false-beliefs that differ from reality. 5. Understanding “hidden feelings”: The final stage is being aware that other people can hide their emotions, and can feel a different emotion from the one they display. Understanding “false-beliefs”: The fourth stage is being aware of the fact that others may have false-beliefs that differ from reality..‫ المرحلة الرابعة هي إدراك حقيقة أن اآلخرين قد يكون لديهم معتقدات خاطئة تختلف عن الواقع‬:"‫فهم "االعتقادات الخاطئة‬ Understanding “hidden feelings”: The final stage is being aware that other people can hide their emotions, and can feel a different emotion from the one they display. ‫ ويمكنهم الشعور بمشاعر مختلفة‬،‫ المرحلة األخيرة هي إدراك أن اآلخرين يمكنهم إخفاء مشاعرهم‬:"‫فهم "المشاعر الخفية‬.‫عن تلك التي يظهرونها‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬11( ‫صفحة‬ Cultural Differences Cultural importance plays a role in determining the specific order in which these five milestones are cemented into the mind of a toddler. That is, those that are more valued tend to be developed before those that are less so (and this makes sense from an evolutionary perspective, too). For example, in individualistic cultures, such as the U.S., a greater emphasis is placed on the ability to recognize that others have different opinions and beliefs. However, in more collectivistic cultures such as China, this skill is not as valued and as a result might not develop until later. Cultural Differences Cultural importance plays a role in determining the specific order in which these five milestones are cemented into the mind of a toddler. ‫االختالفات الثقافية تلعب األهمية الثقافية دوًر ا في تحديد الترتيب المحدد الذي يتم من خالله تثبيت هذه المعالم الخمسة في‬.‫ذهن الطفل الصغير‬ That is, those that are more valued tend to be developed before those that are less so (and this makes sense from an evolutionary perspective, too). ‫وهذا يعني أن أولئك الذين يتمتعون بتقدير أكبر يميلون إلى التطور قبل أولئك األقل قيمة (وهذا منطقي من منظور تطوري‬.)‫أيًض ا‬ For example, in individualistic cultures, such as the U.S., a greater emphasis is placed on the ability to recognize that others have different opinions and beliefs. ‫ يتم التركيز بشكل أكبر على القدرة على إدراك أن اآلخرين‬،‫ مثل الواليات المتحدة‬،‫ في الثقافات الفردية‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬.‫لديهم آراء ومعتقدات مختلفة‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬12( ‫صفحة‬ However, in more collectivistic cultures such as China, this skill is not as valued and as a result might not develop until later. ‫ ال تحظى هذه المهارة بالتقدير ونتيجة لذلك قد ال تتطور إال في وقت‬،‫ في الثقافات األكثر جماعية مثل الصين‬،‫ومع ذلك‬.‫الحق‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬12( ‫صفحة‬ False-Belief Tasks -Most theory of mind studies are conducted with toddlers and infants. Because this is a developmental concept, researchers are concerned with the age at which individuals adopt a theory of mind. -Most studies that measure theory of mind rely on a false- belief task. -The traditional test for theory of mind is a false-belief task. A false-belief task is commonly used in child development research to assess a child’s understanding that other people can have beliefs about the world which are not true. The false- belief task allows researchers to distinguish unambiguously between the child’s (true) belief and the child’s awareness of someone else’s different (false) belief. False-Belief Tasks ‫مهام االعتقاد الكاذب‬ -Most theory of mind studies are conducted with toddlers and infants..‫ يتم إجراء معظم دراسات نظرية العقل مع األطفال الصغار والرضع‬- Because this is a developmental concept, researchers are concerned with the age at which individuals adopt a theory of mind..‫ يهتم الباحثون بالعمر الذي يتبنى فيه األفراد نظرية العقل‬،‫وألن هذا مفهوم تطوري‬ -Most studies that measure theory of mind rely on a false-belief task..‫ تعتمد معظم الدراسات التي تقيس نظرية العقل على مهمة االعتقاد الخاطئ‬- -The traditional test for theory of mind is a false-belief task..‫ االختبار التقليدي لنظرية العقل هو مهمة اعتقاد كاذب‬- @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬13( ‫صفحة‬ A false-belief task is commonly used in child development research to assess a child’s understanding that other people can have beliefs about the world which are not true. ‫ُتستخدم مهمة االعتقاد الخاطئ بشكل شائع في أبحاث تنمية الطفل لتقييم فهم الطفل بأن اآلخرين يمكن أن يكون لديهم‬.‫معتقدات غير صحيحة حول العالم‬ The false-belief task allows researchers to distinguish unambiguously between the child’s (true) belief and the child’s awareness of someone else’s different (false) belief. ‫تتيح مهمة االعتقاد الخاطئ للباحثين التمييز بشكل ال لبس فيه بين اعتقاد الطفل (الحقيقي) ووعي الطفل باعتقاد شخص آخر‬.)‫(خاطئ‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬13( ‫صفحة‬ First-order false-belief tasks assess the realization that it is possible to hold false-beliefs about real events in the world. An example of a commonly used first-order false-belief task is the "Unexpected contents", or “Smarties” task. Experimenters ask children to predict another child’s perception about the contents of a box that looks as though it holds a candy called "Smarties" (that actually includes a pencil). First-order false-belief tasks involve attribution about other’s false-belief with regard to real events. First-order false-belief tasks assess the realization that it is possible to hold false-beliefs about real events in the world..‫تقوم مهام المعتقدات الخاطئة من الدرجة األولى بتقييم إدراك إمكانية اعتناق معتقدات خاطئة حول أحداث حقيقية في العالم‬ An example of a commonly used first-order false-belief task is the "Unexpected contents", or “Smarties” task. ‫مثال على مهمة االعتقاد الخاطئ من الدرجة األولى شائعة االستخدام هي مهمة "المحتويات غير المتوقعة" أو مهمة‬."‫"الذكاء‬ Experimenters ask children to predict another child’s perception about the contents of a box that looks as though it holds a candy called "Smarties" (that actually includes a pencil). ‫يطلب القائمون على التجربة من األطفال التنبؤ بتصور طفل آخر حول محتويات الصندوق الذي يبدو كما لو أنه يحتوي‬.)‫على حلوى تسمى "سمارتيز" (والتي تتضمن في الواقع قلم رصاص‬ First-order false-belief tasks involve attribution about other’s false-belief with regard to real events..‫تتضمن مهام االعتقاد الخاطئ من الدرجة األولى إسناد اعتقاد اآلخرين الخاطئ فيما يتعلق باألحداث الحقيقية‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬14( ‫صفحة‬ 4- Dissociation: - A disruption in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity or perception of environment. Example: - An adult remember nothing of childhood abuse. - A woman who was raped was found walking on streets when examined, she was found in a state of traumatic amnesia. 4- Dissociation: - A disruption in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity or perception of environment..‫ اضطراب في الوظائف المتكاملة عادة للوعي أو الذاكرة أو الهوية أو إدراك البيئة‬- :‫ االنفصال‬-4 Example: - An adult remember nothing of childhood abuse..‫ شخص بالغ ال يتذكر شيئًا من إساءة معاملة األطفال‬- :‫مثال‬ - A woman who was raped was found walking on streets when examined, she was found in a state of traumatic amnesia. ‫ وعند فحصها وجد أنها في حالة من فقدان الذاكرة‬،‫ تم العثور على امرأة تعرضت لالغتصاب وهي تمشي في الشوارع‬-.‫الصادم‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬15( ‫صفحة‬ In second-order false-belief tasks, the child is required to determine what one character in a pictured scenario thinks regarding another character’s beliefs. Thus, can a child understand that another person's belief about a situation can be different from their own, and also from reality. For example, a character leaves an object in one location and while he or she is outside the room the object is transferred to a new location. Passing this task demonstrates the realization that it is possible to hold a false-belief about someone else's belief. A commonly used second-order false-belief task is the Sally-Anne task, in which a character leaves an object in one location, and while he or she is outside the room the object is transferred to a new location. In second-order false-belief tasks, the child is required to determine what one character in a pictured scenario thinks regarding another character’s beliefs. ‫ ُيطلب من الطفل تحديد ما تعتقده إحدى الشخصيات في السيناريو المصور‬،‫في مهام المعتقدات الخاطئة من الدرجة الثانية‬.‫فيما يتعلق بمعتقدات شخصية أخرى‬ Thus, can a child understand that another person's belief about a situation can be different from their own, and also from reality. ‫ وكذلك عن‬،‫ هل يمكن للطفل أن يفهم أن اعتقاد شخص آخر بشأن موقف ما يمكن أن يكون مختلًفا عن اعتقاده‬،‫وبالتالي‬.‫الواقع‬ For example, a character leaves an object in one location and while he or she is outside the room the object is transferred to a new location. ‫ يتم نقل الكائن إلى موقع‬،‫ وأثناء تواجده خارج الغرفة‬،‫ تترك إحدى الشخصيات كائًنا في مكان واحد‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬.‫جديد‬ Passing this task demonstrates the realization that it is possible to hold a false-belief about someone else's belief..‫يوضح اجتياز هذه المهمة إدراك أنه من الممكن أن يكون لديك اعتقاد خاطئ حول اعتقاد شخص آخر‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬16( ‫صفحة‬ A commonly used second-order false-belief task is the Sally-Anne task, in which a character leaves an object in one location, and while he or she is outside the room the object is transferred to a new location. ،‫ حيث تترك الشخصية كائًنا في مكان واحد‬،‫مهمة االعتقاد الخاطئ من الدرجة الثانية شائعة االستخدام هي مهمة سالي آن‬.‫وأثناء وجوده خارج الغرفة يتم نقل الكائن إلى موقع جديد‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬16( ‫صفحة‬ The Sally–Anne task Simon Baron-Cohen (1985) used the Sally–Anne task to investigate whether autistic children could understand false-belief. The child who is being tested sits at a table on which two dolls (Anne and Sally) are positioned facing lidded containers (a box and a basket). The experimenter enacts a scenario with the dolls. In this task, Sally first places a marble into her basket and then leaves the scene. Anne then enters, takes the marble out of the basket, and places it into a closed box. The experimenter then asks the participant where Sally will look for the marble. The Sally–Anne task ‫آن‬-‫مهمة سالي‬ Simon Baron-Cohen (1985) used the Sally–Anne task to investigate whether autistic children could understand false-belief. ‫آن للتحقق مما إذا كان األطفال المصابين بالتوحد يمكنهم فهم‬-‫) مهمة سالي‬1985( ‫استخدم سايمون بارون كوهين‬.‫المعتقدات الخاطئة‬ The child who is being tested sits at a table on which two dolls (Anne and Sally) are positioned facing lidded containers (a box and a basket)..)‫يجلس الطفل الذي يتم اختباره على طاولة عليها دميتان (آن وسالي) في مواجهة حاويات مغطاة (صندوق وسلة‬ The experimenter enacts a scenario with the dolls..‫يقوم المجرب بسن سيناريو مع الدمى‬ In this task, Sally first places a marble into her basket and then leaves the scene..‫ تضع سالي أوًال قطعة من الرخام في سلتها ثم تغادر المشهد‬،‫في هذه المهمة‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬17( ‫صفحة‬ Anne then enters, takes the marble out of the basket, and places it into a closed box..‫ثم تدخل آن وتخرج الرخام من السلة وتضعه في صندوق مغلق‬ The experimenter then asks the participant where Sally will look for the marble..‫ثم يسأل المجرب المشارك أين ستبحث سالي عن الرخام‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬17( ‫صفحة‬ 7- Intellectualization: - The person avoids uncomfortable emotions by focusing on facts and logic. Example - A person who has just been diagnosed with a terminal illness might focus on learning everything about the disease in order to avoid distress and remain distant from the reality of the situation 7- Intellectualization: - The person avoids uncomfortable emotions by focusing on facts and logic..‫ يتجنب اإلنسان المشاعر غير المريحة من خالل التركيز على الحقائق والمنطق‬- :‫ التأمل‬-7 Example - A person who has just been diagnosed with a terminal illness might focus on learning everything about the disease in order to avoid distress and remain distant from the reality of the situation ‫ قد يركز الشخص الذي تم تشخيص إصابته بمرض عضال للتو على تعلم كل شيء عن المرض لتجنب الضيق‬- ‫مثال‬ ‫والبقاء بعيًدا عن حقيقة الموقف‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬18( ‫صفحة‬ Theory of mind problems Theory of mind is an important underlying mechanism that allows for human social interaction to occur. Without it, we would greatly struggle to communicate with each other, understand each other’s behavior, and we wouldn’t be known as the unique social beings that make us so special. Theory of mind problems can have a range of serious complications. Theory of mind problems Theory of mind is an important underlying mechanism that allows for human social interaction to occur..‫مشاكل نظرية العقل نظرية العقل هي آلية أساسية مهمة تسمح بحدوث التفاعل االجتماعي البشري‬ Without it, we would greatly struggle to communicate with each other, understand each other’s behavior, and we wouldn’t be known as the unique social beings that make us so special. ‫ ولن نكون معروفين بأننا‬،‫ وفهم سلوك بعضنا البعض‬،‫ سنواجه صعوبة كبيرة في التواصل مع بعضنا البعض‬،‫وبدون ذلك‬.‫كائنات اجتماعية فريدة تجعلنا مميزين للغاية‬ Theory of mind problems can have a range of serious complications..‫يمكن أن يكون لمشاكل نظرية العقل مجموعة من المضاعفات الخطيرة‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬19( ‫صفحة‬ Autism Although research demonstrates that humans have the capacity to understand theory of mind, some have a better ability to do so than others. Children who are diagnosed with autism, a spectrum disorder marked by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, and nonverbal communication, exhibit a deficit in theory of mind capabilities. But some children with autism can pass false belief tasks when explicitly asked to do so, as opposed to five-year-old children who can do so automatically. Autism Although research demonstrates that humans have the capacity to understand theory of mind, some have a better ability to do so than others. ‫ إال أن البعض لديهم قدرة أفضل على‬،‫التوحد على الرغم من أن األبحاث تثبت أن البشر لديهم القدرة على فهم نظرية العقل‬.‫القيام بذلك من غيرهم‬ Children who are diagnosed with autism, a spectrum disorder marked by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, and nonverbal communication, exhibit a deficit in theory of mind capabilities. ‫ وهو اضطراب طيف يتميز بتحديات في المهارات االجتماعية والسلوكيات‬،‫األطفال الذين تم تشخيص إصابتهم بالتوحد‬.‫ يظهرون عجًز ا في القدرات النظرية للعقل‬،‫المتكررة والتواصل غير اللفظي‬ But some children with autism can pass false belief tasks when explicitly asked to do so, as opposed to five-year-old children who can do so automatically. ‫ على عكس‬، ‫لكن بعض األطفال المصابين بالتوحد يمكنهم اجتياز المهام االعتقادية الخاطئة عندما ُيطلب منهم ذلك صراحًة‬.‫األطفال في سن الخامسة الذين يمكنهم القيام بذلك تلقائًيا‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬20( ‫صفحة‬ Asperger’s For individuals with Asperger’s, a disorder marked by similar, though less severe symptoms than in ASD, also exhibit a lessened ability to express theory of mind, illustrated by their impaired performance on various theory of mind-related tasks. Schizophrenia Some people with schizophrenia, a mental disorder characterized by a loss of touch with reality, also struggle with theory of mind. a stable deficit of theory of mind in people with schizophrenia, as evidenced by their consistent, poor performance on false belief tasks. And similar to individuals with autism and Asperger’s, schizophrenic people have reduced recruitment of the mPFC (medial prefrontal cortex) during false belief tasks. Asperger’s ‫أسبرجر‬ For individuals with Asperger’s, a disorder marked by similar, though less severe symptoms than in ASD, also exhibit a lessened ability to express theory of mind, illustrated by their impaired performance on various theory of mind-related tasks. ‫ وإن كانت أقل حدة من‬،‫ فإن االضطراب الذي يتميز بأعراض مشابهة‬،‫بالنسبة لألفراد المصابين بمتالزمة أسبرجر‬ ‫ كما يتضح من ضعف أدائهم في مختلف‬،‫ ُيظهر أيًض ا قدرة أقل على التعبير عن نظرية العقل‬،‫اضطراب طيف التوحد‬.‫المهام النظرية المتعلقة بالعقل‬ Schizophrenia ‫ُفصام‬ Some people with schizophrenia, a mental disorder characterized by a loss of touch with reality, also struggle with theory of mind..‫ يعانون أيًض ا من نظرية العقل‬،‫ وهو اضطراب عقلي يتميز بفقدان االتصال بالواقع‬،‫بعض األشخاص المصابين بالفصام‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬21( ‫صفحة‬ a stable deficit of theory of mind in people with schizophrenia, as evidenced by their consistent, poor performance on false belief tasks. ‫ كما يتضح من أدائهم المستمر والضعيف في المهام‬،‫عجز ثابت في نظرية العقل لدى األشخاص المصابين بالفصام‬.‫االعتقادية الخاطئة‬ And similar to individuals with autism and Asperger’s, schizophrenic people have reduced recruitment of the mPFC (medial prefrontal cortex) during false belief tasks. ‫ فإن األشخاص المصابين بالفصام لديهم انخفاض في تجنيد‬،‫وعلى غرار األفراد المصابين بالتوحد ومتالزمة أسبرجر‬.‫ (قشرة الفص الجبهي األوسط) أثناء مهام االعتقاد الخاطئ‬mPFC @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬21( ‫صفحة‬ Depression and Anxiety Likewise, individuals with depression struggle with theory of mind and experience deficits in integrating contextual informational about other people , as well as deficits in theory of mind decoding. Depression and Anxiety Likewise, individuals with depression struggle with theory of mind and experience deficits in integrating contextual informational about other people , as well as deficits in theory of mind decoding. ‫ يعاني األفراد المصابون باالكتئاب من نظرية العقل ويعانون من عجز في دمج المعلومات‬،‫االكتئاب والقلق وبالمثل‬.‫ باإلضافة إلى عجز في نظرية فك تشفير العقل‬،‫السياقية عن اآلخرين‬ @xFxBot ‫) | ُترجمت بواسطة‬22( ‫صفحة‬ Thank You ‫‪Thank You‬‬ ‫شكًر ا لك‬ ‫صفحة (‪ُ | )23‬ترجمت بواسطة ‪@xFxBot‬‬