Theory Of Knowledge_ Natural Sciences Chapter Notes PDF

Basic Terminology Term Definition Section 1 Defining Science and Its Boundaries Science The term "science" originates from the Latin scientia meaning knowledge. Science not only enc...

Basic Terminology Term Definition Section 1 Defining Science and Its Boundaries Science The term "science" originates from the Latin scientia meaning knowledge. Science not only encompasses specific disciplines (e.g., biology, chemistry, physics) but also the broader methodology used to acquire knowledge systematically. is both knowledge and the method for obtaining knowledge Purpose Of Science Science aims to describe, explain, predict, and often manipulate natural phenomena through observation, experimentation, and logical reasoning Boundaries and The boundaries of natural science can be blurry, intersecting with human Blurriness Of Science sciences and cultural studies. For instance, modern physics and psychology touch on questions of human perception and cognition, once solely in the realm of philosophy. Karl Popper's Popper argued that scientific theories must be falsifiable. Falsification Principle Verificationism Principle where theories are considered valid if confirmed through repeated observations. Pseudo-science Claims that are non-falsifiable fall under pseudo-science. For example, astrology is often cited as pseudoscience because its predictions are not reliably testable. In practice, we find that astrologers will latch onto even the weakest sorts of evidence in order to support their claims; however, their repeated failures to find evidence are never allowed as evidence against their theories. Section 2 Perspectives on Science and Knowledge Francis Bacon Bacon advocated for empiricism. viewed science as a powerful tool to control and manipulate nature, uncovering hidden truths. Empiricism the view that knowledge comes only from sensory experience and experiment Structure of Scientific Book by Thomas Kuhn Revolutions Thomas Kuhn’s Theory introduced the idea of paradigm shifts  Theory which suggests that scientific progress happens not linearly but through cycles of "normal science" interrupted by revolutions. Paradigm Shift Occurs when anomalies accumulate, causing a crisis in the current paradigm and leading to a new framework. Examples of Paradigm Copernican Revolution: Shifted from an Earth-centered to a heliocentric Shifts model. Newton’s Laws of Motion: Replaced earlier Aristotelian physics. Darwin's Evolutionary Theory: Revolutionized biological sciences. Quantum Mechanics and Relativity: Overturned the Newtonian framework in physics. The impact of Kuhn’s Kuhn suggested that science is less objective than believed because theory in regards to paradigms depend on community consensus, and scientists’ acceptance of objectivity theories Science may be influenced by social or personal factors Scientific Consensus Once a scientific claim is established as fact, it’s often treated as unquestionable. Controversies force the scientific community to re-examine established “truths,” but consensus eventually closes the debate again. The “Black Box” Over time, scientific processes that establish facts become “black-boxed,” Phenomenon meaning they are no longer questioned or examined unless disrupted by a significant anomaly. Black Box Metaphor Initially, new discoveries are rigorously examined, but once consensus is reached, the processes that validated these facts fade into the background, like contents hidden in a "black box." This allows for efficient progress, as not everyone needs to understand every detail. However, it can also lead to a loss of transparency, as the origins of accepted knowledge become obscure. If new evidence challenges these "black-boxed" facts, scientists may reopen the black box, re-evaluating and potentially revising what was once taken for granted. Section 3 Disseminating Scientific Knowledge Role of Journals Academic journals are the primary medium for sharing scientific knowledge. Articles must be peer-reviewed, allowing replication and verification by other scientists, thus ensuring accountability. Challenges in Scientific Access and Cost: Paywalls limit accessibility for non-experts or researchers Publishing without institutional support.  Publish-or-Perish Pressure: Scientists are pressured to publish frequently, which can affect the quality or integrity of their work. Jargon and Accessibility: Scientific language can alienate the general public, contributing to distrust or misunderstanding. Idealized vs. Realistic Popular science outlets often idealize the scientific process, whereas real Portrayal science involves uncertainties and disagreements, which can erode public trust. Post-Truth World Impact Public skepticism toward scientific experts has grown, as observed in the context of climate change and vaccine hesitancy. Section 4 Methods and Tools of Science Nature of Observation Observation is often thought of as passive, while experimentation is active. Both are essential to the scientific method, and observation can introduce subjective biases. Controlled Experiments Scientists attempt to isolate and manipulate variables to understand natural phenomena, often using artificial conditions, which raises questions about whether these findings truly represent nature. Survivorship Bias Famous successes in science overshadow failures, potentially distorting the historical record of scientific progress. Scientific Objectivity Objectivity aims to eliminate personal biases, achieved by standardizing methods, tools, and units. For example, photographs are often used over illustrations to minimize subjective interpretation. Is True Objectivity The scientific ideal assumes that observers are interchangeable, yet human Possible? limitations suggest that complete objectivity may be unattainable. Reductionism Analyzing complex phenomena by breaking them down into simpler components, like genes in biology or atoms in chemistry. Limitations of Pure reductionism may overlook how interconnected systems function as a reductionism whole. Some phenomena, like ecosystems, cannot be fully understood solely through their parts. Emergence Higher-order simplicity or behaviors emerge from complex interactions. Examples include ecosystems or brain functions, where collective interactions reveal properties not present in individual components. Section 5 Ethical Issues in Science Ethics & Community Good science requires adherence to ethical standards, such as honest data Standards reporting, transparency, and accountability through peer review. Ethics of Misconduct Scientific fraud (e.g., falsifying data) undermines credibility, yet issues like misconduct are still present, often driven by funding pressures. Ethics in Application of Atomic Bomb Example: The Manhattan Project’s development of nuclear Scientific Knowledge weapons raises ethical questions about the responsibilities of scientists and the potential for destructive use. Genetic Engineering: Innovations like gene editing bring ethical concerns regarding unintended consequences, biodiversity, and social implications. Cost-Benefit Analysis in Cost-benefit analysis is used in decision-making, aiming to balance Science advantages against potential harms. High-level policymakers often use it, but its effectiveness is limited when unknowns are present or when it depends heavily on expert judgment. Risks and Criticisms Blind acceptance of these analyses may obscure critical perspectives, while automatic distrust may disregard valuable expertise. Feminist and Postcolonial Exclusion in Science: Historically, science has marginalized certain groups Critiques based on gender, race, and sociopolitical status. Feminist and post-colonial scholars critique how scientific knowledge has traditionally excluded Indigenous and non-Western perspectives. Masculine Worldview: Science has often been shaped by masculine values, impacting areas like experimental focus and career access for women. Examples of Bias: Cases like Rosalind Franklin’s contributions to DNA structure research illustrate gender biases within scientific communities. Case Studies Copernican Nicolaus Copernicus proposed that the Earth and other planets revolve around the Revolution Sun, challenging the long-accepted geocentric model that placed Earth at the (Heliocentric Model) universe’s center. This idea, further supported by astronomers like Galileo and Kepler, shifted the way humanity viewed its place in the cosmos and set the stage for modern astronomy. The Copernican model eventually gained acceptance, drastically altering perspectives on both science and religion, as it contradicted theological views of the time.  This shift is considered one of the first major paradigm shifts, demonstrating how new evidence can fundamentally reshape understanding. Newton’s laws of Isaac Newton’s laws of motion and universal gravitation provided a motion comprehensive explanation for both terrestrial and celestial phenomena, replacing Aristotelian physics. Newton’s theories established a mechanical universe governed by predictable, mathematical laws. Newtonian physics not only influenced science but also inspired other disciplines by demonstrating that natural laws could be discovered and understood through observation and reasoning. It remained the dominant paradigm until the 20th century when Einstein’s theories introduced new concepts of relativity and challenged classical mechanics on a fundamental level Darwin’s theory of argued that species evolve over time through the survival and reproduction of evolution by natural those best suited to their environment. selection This challenged the view that species were unchanging and introduced a dynamic view of life. Darwin’s theory transformed biology, providing a unifying explanation for the diversity of life. It also sparked intense debate, particularly concerning its implications for human origins, and led to ongoing discussions in fields such as genetics and ecology. Quantum Mechanics Quantum mechanics emerged in the early 20th century as scientists like Max Planck, Niels Bohr, and Albert Einstein sought to explain phenomena that Newtonian physics couldn’t, such as the behavior of particles at atomic and subatomic scales. The theory introduced concepts like wave-particle duality and uncertainty, fundamentally altering our understanding of matter and energy. This case study shows a shift from deterministic laws to probabilistic models, with quantum mechanics revealing a more complex, less predictable universe at the smallest scales. This paradigm shift has led to advanced technologies like semiconductors and quantum computing Germ Theory developed in part by scientists such as Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, proposed that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases. This concept replaced miasma theory, which suggested that diseases were spread by "bad air."  Germ theory revolutionized medicine, leading to sterilization, vaccination, and antibiotics. It fundamentally changed public health practices and improved life expectancy worldwide. The shift highlights how scientific breakthroughs can directly impact societal well-being. Women and Figures like Rosalind Franklin, who contributed to discovering DNA’s structure, Minorities in Science exemplify how women’s achievements have sometimes been overlooked in favor of their male counterparts. Feminist and post-colonial perspectives question whether traditional scientific methods unintentionally favor certain worldviews, potentially limiting the diversity of scientific inquiry. The study also considers curriculum and societal influences that can restrict women’s access to scientific careers, highlighting ongoing gender and racial gaps in scientific leadership​