Personality Psychology Chapter 4, 2023 (Student Version) PDF

1 © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited Theoretical and Measurement Issues in Trait Psychology CHAPTER 4 RYLEE ORAM (PHD) UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA ...

1 © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited Theoretical and Measurement Issues in Trait Psychology CHAPTER 4 RYLEE ORAM (PHD) UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA  2 Personality Means 1. To get a score for each of the five factors, take the mean of the indicated items. Items with an asterisk (*) should be reverse coded BEFORE entered into the mean. Reverse code as follows: 1 = 7, 2 = 6, 3 = 5, 5 = 3, 6 = 2, and 7 = 1  Surgency: 1, *6, *11, 16, 21, *26, 31, *36 Agreeableness: 2, *7, 12, *17, *22, 27, *32, 37 Conscientiousness: 3, 8, 13, 18, *23, *28, 33, *38 Emotional Stability: *4, *9, *14, 19, *24, 29, *34, 39  Openness/Intellect: 5, 10, 15, *20, 25, 30, *35, *40 © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  3 Personality means 1. Extraversion/Surgency: 6.39 (1.89) 2. Agreeableness: 5.68 (1.87) 3. Conscientiousness: 5.64 (1.92) 4. Emotional Stability: 5.83 (1.86) 5. Openness/Intellect: 5.24 (1.92) © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  Recap: definition of 4 personality  Personality is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that are organized and relatively enduring and that influence the individuals' interactions with, and adaptations to, the intrapsychic, physical and social environments. © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  5 What does Taxonomy mean?  a systematic classification or organization of personality traits, characteristics, or behaviors into distinct categories or dimensions. The goal of a taxonomy is to provide a comprehensive framework that can describe and categorize the diverse ways in which individuals differ in terms of personality. © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  6 Traits vs facets Personality Trait: A personality trait is a broad, stable characteristic that describes a person’s general pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors over time and across situations. Traits are often represented in models like the Big Five (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism), capturing overall tendencies. Facet: A facet is a more specific component or sub-dimension of a personality trait. Facets provide more detailed information about how a person expresses a broader trait. © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  7 Let’s try it 1. Sociability  Openness/Intellect 2. Anxiety 3. Dutifulness 4. Altruism  Conscientiousness 5. Creativity 6. Excitement-Seeking  Extraversion 7. Trust 8. Orderliness  Agreeableness 9. Vulnerability 10. Assertiveness  Neuroticism 11. Self-Discipline © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  8 Learning Objectives 1. Identify and explain important theoretical issues in trait psychology. 2. Identify and explain common measurement issues in trait psychology. 3. Summarize the theory and research on personality and prediction, noting key considerations in personality testing in employment settings. © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  9 Theoretical Issues  Meaningful Differences Between Individuals  Consistency Over Time  Consistency Across Situations © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited Meaningful Differences Between 10 Individuals  There are meaningful differences between individuals  Trait psychology is also called differential psychology  People differ in amounts of traits, and differences can be accurately measured  According to trait psychologists, every personality is the product of a combination of a few basic, primary traits  Individual differences: How individuals differ, not just in personality © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  Meaningful Differences Between 11 Individuals 2  According to trait psychologists  Every personality, no matter how complex or unusual  Is the product of a particular combination of a few basic and primary traits Similar to the colour wheel, trait psychologists hold that the infinite variety of personalities are created from a combination of a few primary traits © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  12 Consistency Over Time  Research indicates consistency over time for broad traits  Although consistent over time, how a trait is manifested in behaviour might change over time  How can there be consistency in a trait if it is known to change with age (e.g., impulsivity)? Focus on the rank order differences between people © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  13 Caspi, Elder, and Bem, 1987  Caspi, Elder, and Bem (1987) conducted a longitudinal study exploring how childhood personality traits influence adult outcomes and the stability of these traits over time. Their research highlighted that: Personality traits in childhood, such as aggression, sociability, and shyness, tend to persist into adulthood, supporting the idea of personality continuity. However, life events and social roles (e.g., marriage, career, parenthood) can shape or modify these traits, showing that personality is also subject to change in response to experiences. The study found that early personality traits predict long-term life outcomes, such as relationship stability and career success, but individual experiences can mediate these effects.  The research emphasizes the interaction between inherent traits and external influences in personality development across the lifespan.  Correlation of -.45 between throwing temper tantrums in childhood and being able to hold a job later © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  14 Caspi, Elder and Bem, 1987 © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  15 Rank order  Rank order: One’s relative position within the group remains constant  For example: At Age 20: At Age 60: Person A: Extraversion score Person A: Extraversion score =9 =7 Person B: Extraversion score Person B: Extraversion score =8 =6 Person C: Extraversion score Person C: Extraversion score =7 =5 Person D: Extraversion score Person D: Extraversion score =6 =4 Person E: Extraversion score Person E: Extraversion score =5 =3 © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  16 Rank Order © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  17 Consistency Across Situations  Trait psychologists traditionally assumed cross- situation consistency  If situations mainly control how people behave, then the existence or relevance of traits is questionable  Situationism:  If behaviour varies across situations, then situational differences and not personality traits determine behaviour © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  18 Hartshorne & May’s Cross-situational Study  Study conducted in 1928  Studied academic and play situations in children @Shutterstock/Syda Productions; (bottom):  They observed honest and dishonest behaviour in several situations, such as if children @mbbirdy/E+/Getty Images cheated while playing games at summer camp and at tests when back in school © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  Hartshorne & May’s Cross- 19 situational Study  Although they found little evidence for consistency in such traits as honesty  Mischel, 1968  We have not been able to establish cross situational influence of personality  Mischel is a situationist  The study was criticized for measuring behaviour on one occasion in each situation  Perhaps, we should not think of situation and personality as one or the other having an effect….. © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  20 Person-Situation Interaction  Two possible explanations for behaviour: 1. Behaviour is a function of personality traits, B = f(P) 2. Behaviour is a function of situational forces, B = f(S)  A way to integrate these two points of view is to declare that both personality and situations interact to produce behaviour B = f (PXS)  This formula suggests that behaviour is a function of the interaction © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited between personality traits and situational forces  21 Person-Situation Interaction 2  Differences between people make a difference only under certain circumstances  Situational specificity:  Certain situations can provoke behaviour that is out of character for an individual  Experiencing extreme loss or anger © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  22 Person-Situation Interaction 3  Strong situation:  Situations in which most people react in a similar way  e.g., grief following loss of loved one  When situations are weak or ambiguous, for example, someone overtakes you on the highway, or inkblots  Personality has its strongest influence © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  23 Person-Situation Interaction 4  Three additional ways in which personality and situation interact to produce behaviour 1. Selection © Shutterstock/Samuel Borges Photography 2. Evocation 3. Manipulation Studies show that extraverts prefer team activities and introverts prefer solitary © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited activities for recreation  24 Person-Situation Interaction 5  Situational Selection:  Tendency to choose or select certain situations to spend one’s time  This is bi-directional  Person-environment fit, some situations are a better fit to our traits  Evocation:  Certain personality traits may evoke specific responses from others  Manipulation:  Various means by which people influence the behaviour of others  Tactics of manipulation vary with personality © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  25 Group Exercise  Come up with one fictional example of each of the three types of Person-Situation Interaction types: 1. Situational selection 2. Evocation 3. Manipulation  Use familiar fictional characters such as: someone from Friends, Big Bang, Harry Potter etc.  Describe a situation where each type would apply © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  26 Aggregation  Aggregation:  The process of averaging several single observations  Single behaviour or occasion may be influenced by extenuating circumstances unrelated to personality  Aggregation implies that traits  Are only one influence on behaviour  Refer to the person’s average level © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  27 Aggregation  Seymor Epstein: aggregating several  observations results in better trait measures,  more reliable  Fleeson: Density distribution of states:  Traits are distributions of states in a life, the mean of that distribution is the person’s level of that trait © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  The Goldilocks Zone of 28 Personality Measurement  Dr. Sampo Paunonen (1952–2015)  Leading researcher and author on the complexities of trait theory and measurement (Western Univesity)  His work addressed a number of issues associated with trait theory and measurement  One main areas of focus was the capacity for trait measurement to predict human behaviour  Facets are better predictors of specific behaviour than traits are © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  29 Measurement Issues  Trait approach relies on self-report surveys to measure personality  Traits are often represented as dimensions along which people differ  Trait psychologists are aware of and address circumstances that affect accuracy, reliability, validity, and utility of self-report trait measures © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  30 Measurement Issues 2  Important measurement issues in trait research 1. Carelessness @Fuse/Getty Images 2. Faking On Questionnaires Personality tests are frequently administered in large group settings © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  31 Measurement Issues 3  Carelessness  Method for detecting such problems is an infrequency scale embedded in test  Infrequency scale contains items that most people answer in a particular way, if a participant answers differently than most, this suggests carelessness  For example: I make all my own clothing and shoes”  Another method for detecting carelessness is to include duplicate items spaced far apart in the survey—if the person answers the same item differently, this suggests carelessness © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  32 Measurement Issues 4  Faking On Questionnaires  “Fake good”  Attempt to appear better off or better adjusted than one is  “Fake bad”  Attempt to appear worse off or less adjusted than one is  Method to detect is to a devise scale that, if answered in particular way, suggests faking © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  33 Measurement Issues 5 Two ways to make a mistake when deciding whether a person was faking responses to a personality questionnaire. © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  34 Is this you?  You have a strong need for other people to like and admire you, yet you tend to be critical of yourself. While you have some weaknesses, you are generally able to compensate for them. You have a great deal of unused potential, which you haven’t fully turned into success, and sometimes you feel insecure. At times, you can be outgoing and social, but in other moments, you prefer to be alone." © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  35 Measurement Issues 6  Barnum statements are generalities that could apply to anyone  Reliable test interpretations should make statements that are quantitative or that provide information about standing on a trait relative to others © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  36 Personality and Prediction  Employment success may be determined, in part, by whether a person’s personality traits mesh with job requirements  Personality traits may predict who is likely to do well in particular job  It makes sense to select people for employment based on measures of traits © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  37 Personality and Prediction 2  Using tests to select employees has limitations and potential liabilities  Lawsuits have challenged the use of tests on the grounds ranging from  Discrimination, to invasion of privacy, to freedom of religion © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  38 Personality and Prediction 3  Personality Testing in the Workplace  Employers may make use of personality testing to avoid charges of negligent hiring 1. Personnel Selection 2. Integrity Testing 3. Concerns over Negligent Hiring © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  39 Personality and Prediction 4  Bill C. 16  Legal Issues in Personality Testing in Employment Settings 1. Right to privacy 2. Discrimination (The Employee Equity Act of 1986) 3. Disparate Impact: does a practice disadvantage people from a protected group 4. Race or Gender Norming: can’t use different norms for different groups, such as gender (Meyers-Briggs has race and gender norming) © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  Personnel Selection: Choosing the Right40 Person for Job  Personality tests frequently used to screen out “wrong” individuals from a pool of applicants for police officers  Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI II)  California Personality Inventory (CPI)  16 Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire  RCMP Six Factor Personality Questionnaire © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  Personnel Selection: Choosing the Right 41 Person for Job2  The revised Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI II)  One of the most frequently administered tests for police @FPW/Alamy Stock Photo officers, including the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)  Designed to detect various mental illnesses and related traits © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited Selection in Business Settings: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator42 (MBTI)  MBTI is most widely used personality assessment device in business settings (taken 3 million times per year)  Assesses eight fundamental preferences, which reduce to four scores:  Extraverted versus introverted  Sensing or intuitive  Thinking or feelings  Judging or perceiving © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited Selection in Business Settings: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator43 (MBTI) 2  Four scores combined to yield 16 types  MBTI used widely to select applicants for leadership positions  But criticism, especially regarding reliability and predictive validity  Retest reliability: With a 5-week time span, only 50% received the same category….  Meyers-Briggs video © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  44 Bimodal vs normal curve © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  Selection in Business Settings: 45 The Hogan Personality Inventory  Based on the Big Five Model  People want three things: acceptance, status and control of resources, and predictability  Seven primary scales and six occupational scales  High measurement reliability © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  46 Hogan continued © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  47 Summary and Evaluation  Hallmark of trait perspective is the emphasis on the differences between people  Traits psychologists assume that people will be relatively constant over time and across situations in behaviours  Because of their differences in various traits  Traits are more likely to influence a person’s behaviour when the situation is weak and ambiguous and doesn’t push for conformity from all people © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited  48 Summary and Evaluation 2  Personality traits refer to the average tendencies in behaviour  Traitpsychologists are interested in the accuracy of measurement  Interest in measurement and prediction has led trait psychologists to apply these skills to the selection or screening of job applicants and other situations where personality might make a difference © 2023 McGraw Hill Limited