Social Psychology Study Guide PDF

1 The Ultimate Study Guide Social Psychology chapters 3,6,9 Chapter 3: Social Perception (Seeking to Understand Others) ​ Social Perception: Process through which we seek to know other people ​ Nonverbal Communication: Information conveyed by cues other than the content of spoken languag...

1 The Ultimate Study Guide Social Psychology chapters 3,6,9 Chapter 3: Social Perception (Seeking to Understand Others) ​ Social Perception: Process through which we seek to know other people ​ Nonverbal Communication: Information conveyed by cues other than the content of spoken language, as well as our efforts to interpret it ○​ Facial Expressions ​ 5 basic emotions: anger, fear, happiness, sadness, disgust ○​ Eye Contact ​ Staring: Gazing continuously or maintaining eye contact (often interpreted as anger or hostility) ○​ Body Language / Posture / Movements ​ Body Language: Moods reflected in the position, posture, or movement of our bodies ○​ Touching ​ Nonverbal Cues in Social Life ○​ Paralanguage: Type of nonverbal communication involving vocal effects other than speech (ex. tone, pitch, etc.) ○​ Facial Feedback Hypothesis: View that facial expressions can actually trigger emotions ​ Recognizing Deception ○​ Microexpressions: Fleeting facial expressions lasting only a few tenths of a second ○​ Linguistic Style: Aspects of speech apart from the meaning of words (ex. pitch) ​ Attribution: Understanding the Causes of Behavior ○​ Attribution: Process through which we seek information such as motives, and draw inferences ​ Theories of Attribution ○​ Correspondent Inference: Asks how we use information about others’ behavior as the basis for inferring their traits ​ Noncommon Effects: Conditions that can be caused by one specific factor, but not by others  2 ​ Theory states we are more likely to conclude that others’ behavior reflects their stable traits, and we pay more attention traits with low social desirability ○​ Kelley’s Covariation Theory: Focus on 3 major types of information when trying to answer the “why?” question about others’ behavior ​ Consensus: Extent to which other people react to a given stimulus or event in the same manner as the person we are evaluating ​ Consistency: Extent to which the person in question reacts to the stimulus or event in the same way on other occasions, over time ​ Distinctiveness: Extent to which the person reacts in the same manner to other, different stimuli or events ○​ Fate Attribution: Events occur only because of “destiny” ○​ Action Identification: The interpretation we place on an act, in terms of differing degrees of abstraction ​ Not only do what people do shape our perceptions of them, but also our interpretation of their actions ​ Basic Sources of Error in Attribution ○​ Correspondence Bias: Tendency to explain others’ actions as stemming from their dispositions, even in the presence of clear situational causes ​ AKA Fundamental Attribution Error ○​ Actor-Observer Effect: Tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational causes, but the behavior of others to dispositional (internal) causes ○​ Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to attribute our own positive outcomes to internal causes but negative outcomes to external factors ​ Cognitive Model: We expect to succeed ​ Motivational Explanation: Stems from our need to protect / enhance our self-esteem ​ Hubris: Strong tendency to hold exaggerated positive views about oneself ​ Applications of Attribution Theory: Interventions and Insights ​ Impression Formation and Management: Combining Information About Others ○​ Impression Formation: How we develop our views of others ○​ Thin Slices: Small pieces of information about someone, like photos or short videos  3 ○​ Impression Management or Self-presentation: Efforts to make a good impression on others ​ Self-enhancement: Efforts to increase our appeal to others ​ Other-enhancement: Efforts to make the target person feel good in various ways Chapter 6: Causes and Cures of Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination ​ Prejudice: Negative emotional responses or dislike based on group membership ​ Discrimination: Differential treatment based on group membership ​ Stereotyping: Beliefs about what members of a social group are like ​ Risk Averse: People tend to weigh possible losses more heavily than equivalent potential gains ​ The Nature and Origins of Stereotyping ○​ Stereotypes: Considered the cognitive component of attitudes toward a social group- specifically, beliefs about about what a particular group is like ​ Stereotype = cognitive component ​ Prejudice = affect component (feelings that we have) ​ Discrimination = behavioral component (actions taken) ​ Gender Stereotypes: Beliefs concerning the characteristics of women and men, consist of both positive and negative traits ○​ Glass Ceiling: Final barrier that prevents women, as a group, from reaching top positions in the workplace ○​ Glass Cliff Effect: Women are more likely to gain admittance to valued leadership positions when a crisis has occurred (the leadership position is more precarious, and there is a greater risk of failure) ​ Tokenism: Where only a few members of a previously excluded group are admitted ○​ Negative Effects: Let’s prejudice people off the hook, and token presence helps maintain perceptions that the existing system is fair ​ Shifting Standards: Although the same evaluation ratings can be given to members of different groups, stereotypes may have influenced those ratings ​ Objective Scales: Meaning is the same no matter who they are applied to ​ Subjective Scales: Different meanings depending on who they are applied to ​ Singlism: Negative stereotyping of and discrimination that is directed toward people who are single  4 ​ Schemas: Cognitive frameworks for organizing, interpreting, and recalling information ​ Subtype: Special category consisting of people who do not confirm the schema or stereotype ​ Essences: Often some biologically based feature that distinguishes that group from other groups, which can serve as justification for their differential treatment ​ Minimal Groups: Social group created in a lab setting with arbitrary or meaningless criteria ​ Incidental Feelings: Those caused by factors other than the outgroup ​ Implicit Associations: Unconscious mental processes that influence us ​ The Origins of Prejudice: Contrasting Perspectives ○​ Threat: Can be material or symbolic, towards a valued ingroup ​ Threats to Self-Esteem ○​ Competition for Resources as a Source of Prejudice ​ Zero-sum Outcome: If one group gets something, the other groups cannot ​ Realistic Conflict Theory: As competition escalates, the members of the groups involved will come to view each other in increasingly negative terms ​ Superordinate Goals: Desired outcomes that neither group could receive alone ○​ Cognitive Effects of Social Categorization: The Us-Vs.-Them Effect ​ Social Identity Theory: Suggests that individuals seek to feel positively about the groups to which they belong, and part of our self-esteem is derived from our social group memberships (prejudice is derived from our tendency to divide the world into “us” and “them”) ​ Identity Fusion: Extent to which a person sees the self and their group as overlapping ​ Existential Threat: Stems from anxiety based on awareness of our own mortality ​ Terror Management Theory: Argues that awareness of death can evoke existential terror that can be reduced by adhering to prevailing cultural worldviews ​ Discrimination: Prejudice in Action  5 ○​ Discrimination: Negative actions toward the objects of racial, ethnic, and gender prejudice ○​ Modern Racism: More subtle forms of racism compared to the older racism ​ Measuring Implicit Racial Attitudes ○​ Implicit: Views that can influence behavior, but the people holding them may not be aware of their impact ○​ Priming: Exposure to certain stimuli or events “prime” information held in memory, making it easier to bring to mind, or more available to influence our current reactions ○​ Bona Fide Pipeline: Procedure where participants see various adjectives and are asked to indicate whether they have a “good” or “bad” meaning by pushing one of two buttons ○​ Prejudice people view themselves as unprejudiced by comparison to extreme prejudice groups ​ When We Confront What Our Group Has Done to Another Group ○​ Collective Guilt: Emotional response that people can experience when they perceive their group as responsible for illegitimate wrongdoings ○​ Moral Disengagement: No longer seeing sanctioning as necessary for perpetrating harm ​ Why Prejudice is Not Inevitable: Techniques for Countering Its Effects ○​ Social Learning View: Children acquire negative attitudes toward various social groups because they hear such views expressed by significant others, and because they are directly rewards (with love, praise, and approval) for adopting these views ○​ Contact Hypothesis: Idea that racial prejudice can be reduced by increasing the direct contact between different groups ○​ Recategorization: Shifts in what groups we view as “us” or “them” (football team example) ○​ Common Ingroup Identity Model: Prejudice can be reduced through recategorization- shifting boundary between “us” and “them” so as to include former outgroups in the “us’ category ​ The Benefits of Guilt for Prejudice Reduction ○​ Collective Guilt: Research shows people can feel collective guilt based off the actions of other members of their group  6 ○​ Training people to say “no” to associations between stereotypes and specific social groups can lead to prejudice reduction Chapter 9: Prosocial Behavior (Helping Others) ​ Prosocial Behavior: Actions by individuals that help others, often, with no immediate benefit to the helpers ​ Why People Help: Motives for Prosocial Behavior ○​ Empathy: Capacity to be able to experience others’ emotional states feel sympathetic towards them, and take their perspective (consists of 3 distinct components) ​ Emotional Aspect: Emotional empathy, which involves sharing the feelings and emotions of others ​ Cognitive Component: Empathic accuracy, which involves perceiving others’ thoughts and feelings accurately ​ Empathetic Concern: Involves feelings of concern for another’s well-being ○​ Empathy-altruism Hypothesis: Suggests that at least some prosocial acts are motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need ○​ Negative-state Relief Model: We do good in order to not feel bad ○​ Empathic Joy Hypothesis: Helpers enjoy positive reactions shown by others whom they help ○​ Competitive Altruism: Suggests that one important reason that people help others is that doing so boosts their own status and reputation and ultimately brings them large benefits ○​ Kin Selection Theory: We are more likely to help those who we are closer related to then not ○​ Reciprocal Altruism Theory: We help other people because they will help us ○​ Defensive Helping: People help others’ in outgroups to defuse status threats from them (putting them down, in a way) ​ Diffusion of Responsibility: People assume someone else will help ​ Pluralistic Ignorance: Tendency for an individual surrounded by a group of strangers to hesitate and do nothing ​ Factors That Increase or Decrease the Tendency to Help ○​ We help people more similar to ourselves  7 ○​ Exposure to prosocial models (seeing others helping) ○​ Playing prosocial video games ○​ State of awe can increase our prosocial behavior because we focus less on ourselves ○​ People with less tend to give more ○​ Social Exclusion: If we are excluded from a group or feel like we do not belong ○​ Under anonymous conditions people may help less ○​ Putting economic value on our time reduces prosocial behavior ​ Crowdfunding: The action of raising money for a venture from a large number of people who give relatively small amounts of money. (eg. The firm's founder, Palmer Luckey, used Kickstarter to raise $2.4 million (U.S.) in 2012) ​ Mirth Condition: Exposure to funny comedian that can increase prosocial behavior ​ Women more likely to help close friends, men more likely to help strangers or close friends ○​ No gender is “more helpful,” but they are helpful in different situations ​ Prosocial behavior and aggression aren’t necessarily opposites Behavioral Neuroscience chapters 1,2,3,5 Chapter 1 key words Basic Terms in Neuroscience and Biopsychology ​ Neurons (p. 26) – The basic building blocks of the nervous system, specialized cells that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals. ​ Neuroscience (p. 26) – The scientific study of the nervous system, including its structure, function, development, genetics, biochemistry, and pathology. ​ Thinking Creatively (p. 27) – The ability to approach problems and ideas in novel and innovative ways, often leading to new insights and discoveries. ​ Clinical (p. 27) – Related to the diagnosis, treatment, and care of patients, particularly in a medical or psychological setting.  8 ​ Evolutionary Perspective (p. 27) – A way of studying behavior and mental processes by considering how they have been shaped by evolutionary forces and natural selection. ​ Neuroplasticity (p. 28) – The brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections, particularly in response to learning or damage. ​ Epigenetics (p. 28) – The study of how environmental factors influence gene expression without changing the DNA sequence itself. ​ Consciousness (p. 28) – Awareness of oneself and the external world, including thoughts, perceptions, and emotions. What Is Biopsychology? ​ Biopsychology (p. 28) – The study of how biological processes influence behavior, emotions, and mental functions. ​ Neuroanatomy (p. 29) – The study of the structure and organization of the nervous system. ​ Neurochemistry (p. 29) – The study of the chemical composition and processes within the nervous system. ​ Neuroendocrinology (p. 29) – The study of how the nervous system interacts with the endocrine system to regulate hormones. ​ Neuropathology (p. 29) – The study of nervous system diseases and disorders. ​ Neuropharmacology (p. 29) – The study of how drugs affect the nervous system and behavior. ​ Neurophysiology (p. 29) – The study of the functional properties of the nervous system, including electrical and biochemical processes. Types of Research in Biopsychology ​ Comparative Approach (p. 29) – A method that compares different species to understand biological and behavioral mechanisms. ​ Between-Subjects Design (p. 30) – An experimental design where different groups of subjects experience different conditions. ​ Within-Subjects Design (p. 30) – An experimental design where the same subjects experience all conditions of the experiment. ​ Independent Variable (p. 30) – The variable that is manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.  9 ​ Dependent Variable (p. 30) – The variable that is measured to assess the effects of the independent variable. ​ Confounded Variable (p. 30) – An uncontrolled factor that might affect the outcome of an experiment. ​ Coolidge Effect (p. 31) – The phenomenon where males exhibit renewed sexual interest when introduced to a new potential mate. ​ Lordosis (p. 31) – A posture adopted by female mammals during mating, characterized by an arched back. ​ Quasiexperimental Studies (p. 31) – Studies that attempt to examine cause-and-effect relationships but lack random assignment of subjects. ​ Case Studies (p. 32) – In-depth analyses of individuals or small groups to understand particular conditions or behaviors. ​ Generalizability (p. 32) – The extent to which research findings can be applied to broader populations. ​ Pure Research (p. 32) – Research conducted to gain knowledge without an immediate practical application. ​ Applied Research (p. 32) – Research aimed at solving specific practical problems. ​ Translational Research (p. 32) – Research that bridges the gap between basic scientific discoveries and practical applications. Divisions of Biopsychology ​ Physiological Psychology (p. 34) – The study of how the nervous system influences behavior through direct manipulation of the brain. ​ Psychopharmacology (p. 34) – The study of how drugs affect the brain and behavior. ​ Neuropsychology (p. 34) – The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior, often focusing on brain injuries and disorders. ​ Cerebral Cortex (p. 34) – The outermost layer of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, memory, and decision-making. ​ Psychophysiology (p. 35) – The study of the relationship between physiological responses and psychological processes. ​ Electroencephalogram (EEG) (p. 35) – A technique that records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp. ​ Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (p. 35) – The part of the nervous system that controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.  10 ​ Cognitive Neuroscience (p. 35) – The study of how brain activity relates to cognitive functions like memory, perception, and language. ​ Cognition (p. 35) – The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding, including thinking, memory, and problem-solving. ​ Comparative Psychology (p. 36) – The study of behavior across different species to understand evolutionary influences. ​ Ethological Research (p. 36) – The study of animal behavior in natural environments. Methods and Ethics in Biopsychology ​ Converging Operations (p. 37) – Using multiple research methods to study the same phenomenon to increase reliability. ​ Korsakoff’s Syndrome (p. 37) – A neurological disorder, often caused by chronic alcoholism, that leads to severe memory loss. ​ Scientific Inference (p. 38) – The process of drawing conclusions from observable evidence. Thinking Critically About Biopsychology ​ Critical Thinking (p. 40) – The ability to analyze and evaluate information logically and systematically. ​ Morgan’s Canon (p. 40) – The principle that simpler explanations should be preferred over complex ones when analyzing animal behavior. ​ Prefrontal Lobotomy (p. 40) – A surgical procedure that involves severing connections in the prefrontal lobes to treat mental disorders. ​ Prefrontal Lobes (p. 40) – The front part of the brain involved in decision-making, personality, and social behavior. ​ Leucotome (p. 41) – A surgical instrument used to perform lobotomies. ​ Transorbital Lobotomy (p. 41) – A form of lobotomy where an instrument is inserted through the eye socket to sever brain connections. ​ Psychosurgery (p. 41) – The use of surgical procedures to treat mental disorders. ​  11 Chapter 2 we did not cover twins (p 44 & 45) Zeitgeist and Thinking About the Biology of Behavior ​ Zeitgeist (p. 45) – The prevailing cultural, intellectual, and moral climate or spirit of a particular time. ​ Cartesian Dualism (p. 46) – René Descartes' idea that the mind and body are separate entities, with the mind being non-physical and the body being physical. ​ Nature–Nurture Issue (p. 46) – The debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) plays a more significant role in shaping human traits and behaviors. ​ Ethology (p. 46) – The scientific study of animal behavior, emphasizing naturalistic observations and evolutionary influences. ​ Instinctive Behaviors (p. 46) – Inborn patterns of behavior that occur naturally in response to specific stimuli. ​ Asomatognosia (p. 47) – A neurological disorder in which a person is unaware of a part of their own body, often resulting from damage to the right parietal lobe. Human Evolution ​ Evolve (p. 50) – To change gradually over generations through natural selection and genetic variation. ​ Natural Selection (p. 50) – The process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in a population over time. ​ Fitness (p. 50) – An organism’s ability to survive and reproduce in its environment. ​ Species (p. 51) – A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. ​ Conspecifics (p. 52) – Members of the same species. ​ Chordates (p. 52) – Animals that have a notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, and pharyngeal slits at some stage in their development. ​ Vertebrates (p. 52) – Animals with a backbone or spinal column. ​ Amphibians (p. 52) – Cold-blooded vertebrates that begin life in water (as larvae) and later develop the ability to live on land. ​ Mammals (p. 52) – Warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by hair or fur and the ability to nurse their young with milk.  12 ​ Primates (p. 52) – An order of mammals that includes humans, monkeys, and apes, characterized by large brains and grasping hands. ​ Hominins (p. 53) – Members of the human evolutionary lineage, including modern humans and extinct relatives such as Neanderthals. ​ Spandrels (p. 55) – Evolutionary byproducts that arise as side effects of adaptations. ​ Exaptations (p. 55) – Traits that evolved for one function but later served a different purpose. ​ Homologous (p. 55) – Traits inherited from a common ancestor, even if they serve different functions. ​ Analogous (p. 55) – Traits that have similar functions but evolved independently in different species. ​ Convergent Evolution (p. 55) – The independent evolution of similar traits in unrelated species due to similar environmental pressures. ​ Brain Stem (p. 57) – The part of the brain that controls basic survival functions like breathing and heart rate. ​ Cerebrum (p. 57) – The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking and memory. ​ Convolutions (p. 57) – The folds and grooves in the cerebral cortex that increase the brain's surface area. Fundamental Genetics ​ Dichotomous Traits (p. 58) – Traits that appear in only two distinct forms (e.g., tall vs. short). ​ True-Breeding Lines (p. 58) – Populations that consistently produce offspring with the same traits over generations. ​ Dominant Trait (p. 58) – A genetic trait that is expressed when at least one dominant allele is present. ​ Recessive Trait (p. 58) – A genetic trait that is only expressed when two recessive alleles are present. ​ Phenotype (p. 58) – The observable characteristics of an organism, influenced by both genetics and environment. ​ Genotype (p. 58) – The genetic makeup of an organism. ​ Gene (p. 59) – A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or trait.  13 ​ Alleles (p. 59) – Different versions of a gene that can result in different traits. ​ Homozygous (p. 59) – Having two identical alleles for a particular gene. ​ Heterozygous (p. 59) – Having two different alleles for a particular gene. ​ Chromosomes (p. 59) – Structures in cells that contain DNA and genetic information. ​ Gametes (p. 59) – Reproductive cells (sperm and eggs) that carry half of an organism’s genetic material. ​ Meiosis (p. 59) – The process of cell division that creates gametes with half the usual number of chromosomes. ​ Zygote (p. 60) – A fertilized egg cell that forms when a sperm and egg combine. ​ Genetic Recombination (p. 60) – The exchange of genetic material between chromosomes during meiosis, increasing genetic diversity. ​ Mitosis (p. 60) – The process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells. ​ Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) (p. 60) – The molecule that carries genetic instructions for life. ​ Nucleotide Bases (p. 60) – The chemical building blocks of DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). ​ Replication (p. 60) – The process of copying DNA before cell division. ​ Mutations (p. 61) – Changes in the DNA sequence that can lead to genetic variation. ​ Autosomal Chromosomes (p. 61) – Non-sex chromosomes that determine most traits. ​ Sex Chromosomes (p. 61) – Chromosomes (X and Y) that determine an organism’s biological sex. ​ Sex-Linked Traits (p. 61) – Traits influenced by genes located on the sex chromosomes. ​ Proteins (p. 61) – Large molecules composed of amino acids that perform various functions in the body. ​ Amino Acids (p. 61) – The building blocks of proteins. ​ Promoters (p. 61) – DNA sequences that regulate gene transcription. ​ Gene Expression (p. 62) – The process by which genetic information is used to create proteins. ​ Activators (p. 62) – Proteins that increase gene expression. ​ Repressors (p. 62) – Proteins that decrease gene expression.  14 ​ Transcription (p. 62) – The process of copying DNA into RNA. ​ Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) (p. 63) – A molecule that helps in gene expression and protein synthesis. ​ Messenger RNA (p. 63) – RNA that carries genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes. ​ Translation (p. 63) – The process where ribosomes use RNA to synthesize proteins. ​ Ribosomes (p. 63) – Cellular structures that build proteins. ​ Codon (p. 63) – A three-nucleotide sequence in RNA that specifies an amino acid. ​ Transfer RNA (p. 63) – RNA molecules that transport amino acids to ribosomes. ​ Human Genome Project (p. 63) – A research initiative that mapped all human genes. ​ Human Proteome (p. 63) – The complete set of proteins in the human body. Epigenetics and Behavioral Development ​ Epigenetics (p. 64) – The study of how gene activity is regulated without changing DNA sequences. ​ DNA Methylation (p. 64) – A chemical modification that can silence genes. ​ Histone Remodeling (p. 64) – Changes in histones that affect gene expression. ​ Epigenome (p. 65) – The collection of chemical modifications on DNA that regulate gene activity. ​ Transgenerational Epigenetics (p. 65) – The study of how epigenetic changes are passed to offspring. Genetics of Human Psychological Differences ​ Monozygotic Twins (p. 68) – Identical twins who develop from a single fertilized egg. ​ Dizygotic Twins (p. 68) – Fraternal twins who develop from two separate fertilized eggs. ​ Heritability Estimate (p. 68) – A measure of how much genetic factors contribute to variation in traits.  15 Chapter 3: Anatomy of the nervous system 1.​ Central Nervous System (CNS) – Consists of the brain and spinal cord, serving as the main control center for processing and transmitting information throughout the body. 2.​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – Comprises all nerves outside the CNS, including sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to limbs, organs, and tissues. 3.​ Somatic Nervous System (SNS) – A subdivision of the PNS responsible for voluntary movements and transmitting sensory and motor information to and from the CNS. 4.​ Afferent Nerves – Nerves that carry sensory signals from the body (skin, muscles, and sensory organs) to the CNS. 5.​ Efferent Nerves – Nerves that transmit motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands, enabling movement and autonomic functions. 6.​ Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – A subdivision of the PNS that regulates involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate. 7.​ Sympathetic Nerves – Part of the ANS that activates the "fight-or-flight" response, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy mobilization. 8.​ Parasympathetic Nerves – Part of the ANS that promotes the "rest-and-digest" response, conserving energy and maintaining bodily functions like digestion and lowering heart rate. 9.​ Cranial Nerves – Twelve pairs of nerves that arise directly from the brain, controlling sensory and motor functions of the head, neck, and some internal organs. 10.​Meninges – Three protective membranes (dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater) that encase the brain and spinal cord. 11.​Dura Mater – The outermost, tough, and durable membrane of the meninges that provides strong protection for the CNS. 12.​Arachnoid Membrane – The middle layer of the meninges, a web-like structure that cushions the brain and spinal cord. 13.​Subarachnoid Space – The space between the arachnoid membrane and pia mater, filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that helps protect the CNS. 14.​Pia Mater – The innermost, delicate membrane of the meninges that closely adheres to the brain and spinal cord.  16 15.​Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) – A clear fluid that circulates within the CNS, providing cushioning, nutrient transport, and waste removal. 16.​Central Canal – A fluid-filled channel that runs through the spinal cord, playing a role in CSF circulation. 17.​Cerebral Ventricles – A network of interconnected cavities within the brain that contain and circulate CSF. 18.​Choroid Plexuses – Structures within the ventricles that produce CSF, ensuring its continuous circulation. 19.​Blood–Brain Barrier – A selective permeability barrier that protects the brain by preventing harmful substances from entering the CNS while allowing essential nutrients to pass through. Neurons – The fundamental units of the nervous system, specialized cells that transmit electrical and chemical signals to communicate information throughout the body. Multipolar Neuron – A type of neuron that has one axon and multiple dendrites, commonly found in the brain and spinal cord. Unipolar Neuron – A type of neuron with a single extension from the cell body that splits into two branches, primarily found in sensory neurons of the peripheral nervous system. Bipolar Neuron – A neuron with two extensions (one axon and one dendrite), commonly found in sensory systems such as the retina of the eye. Interneurons – Neurons that connect other neurons within the CNS, facilitating communication between sensory and motor neurons. Nuclei – Clusters of neuron cell bodies within the central nervous system that serve as processing centers for various neural functions. Ganglia – Clusters of neuron cell bodies located outside the CNS, typically in the peripheral nervous system, involved in transmitting sensory and autonomic signals. Tracts – Bundles of axons within the CNS that carry information between different areas of the brain and spinal cord. Nerves – Bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system that transmit sensory and motor signals between the body and the CNS. Glial Cells – Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that support, protect, and nourish neurons, playing a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis. Oligodendrocytes – A type of glial cell in the CNS that produces myelin, which insulates and speeds up electrical signals in neurons.  17 Myelin – A fatty substance that wraps around axons to insulate them and increase the speed of electrical impulses. Myelin Sheaths – The layers of myelin that cover axons, formed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. Schwann Cells – Glial cells in the PNS responsible for producing myelin sheaths around peripheral nerves, aiding in nerve regeneration. Microglia – Small glial cells in the CNS that act as immune defenders, removing debris, pathogens, and dead neurons. Astrocytes – Star-shaped glial cells in the CNS that provide structural support, regulate nutrients, and help maintain the blood-brain barrier. Staining & Imaging Techniques: 1.​ Golgi Stain – A neuroanatomical staining technique that selectively colors entire neurons, including their dendrites and axons, making it useful for studying neuron structure. 2.​ Nissl Stain – A staining method that highlights neuron cell bodies by coloring rough endoplasmic reticulum, useful for identifying the distribution of neurons in brain tissue. 3.​ Electron Microscopy – A high-resolution imaging technique that uses electron beams to visualize detailed structures of neurons and other cellular components at a microscopic level. Directional Terms in Neuroanatomy: 4.​ Anterior – Refers to the front part of the body or brain (toward the head in four-legged animals and toward the face in humans). 5.​ Posterior – Refers to the back part of the body or brain (toward the tail in animals and toward the back of the head in humans). 6.​ Dorsal – Refers to the top or back side of the body or brain (in humans, it means toward the back, while in four-legged animals, it refers to the top). 7.​ Ventral – Refers to the bottom or front side of the body or brain (in humans, it means toward the belly, while in animals, it refers to the underside). 8.​ Medial – Refers to a position closer to the midline of the body or brain. 9.​ Lateral – Refers to a position farther from the midline of the body or brain. 10.​Superior – Refers to a position above or higher in relation to another structure. 11.​Inferior – Refers to a position below or lower in relation to another structure.  18 12.​Proximal – Refers to a structure that is closer to the point of attachment or the origin of a structure. 13.​Distal – Refers to a structure that is farther from the point of attachment or origin. Brain Sectioning & Anatomical Planes: 14.​Horizontal Sections – Brain slices that are cut parallel to the ground, dividing the brain into upper and lower parts. 15.​Frontal Sections (Coronal Sections) – Brain slices that are cut perpendicular to the midline and parallel to the face, dividing the brain into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions. 16.​Sagittal Sections – Brain slices that are cut parallel to the midline, dividing the brain into left and right halves. 17.​Cross Section – A transverse slice of a structure, often used to refer to cuts through the spinal cord or brainstem at a right angle to its long axis. Spinal Cord & Brain Structures 1.​ Gray Matter – The regions of the CNS consisting mainly of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons, involved in processing and integration of information. 2.​ White Matter – The part of the CNS consisting mostly of myelinated axons, responsible for transmitting signals between different brain regions and the spinal cord. 3.​ Dorsal Horns – The posterior portions of the spinal cord gray matter that receive sensory input from afferent neurons. 4.​ Ventral Horns – The anterior portions of the spinal cord gray matter that contain motor neurons sending signals to muscles. 5.​ Dorsal Root Ganglia – Clusters of sensory neuron cell bodies located just outside the spinal cord that transmit sensory information to the CNS. 6.​ Brain Stem – The lower part of the brain connecting the spinal cord to the forebrain, responsible for autonomic functions like heart rate and breathing. Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) 7.​ Myelencephalon (Medulla) – The lowest part of the brainstem, involved in basic life functions such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.  19 8.​ Reticular Formation – A network of neurons extending through the brainstem, playing a key role in consciousness, arousal, and sleep-wake cycles. 9.​ Metencephalon – A part of the hindbrain that includes the pons and cerebellum, involved in movement coordination and sensory processing. 10.​Pons – A brainstem structure that connects different parts of the brain and plays a role in motor control, sensory analysis, and sleep regulation. 11.​Cerebellum – A structure at the back of the brain responsible for balance, coordination, and fine motor control. Midbrain (Mesencephalon) 12.​Mesencephalon – The midbrain region that plays a role in movement, sensory processing, and reflexive responses. 13.​Tectum – The dorsal (top) part of the midbrain, containing structures involved in visual and auditory processing. 14.​Inferior Colliculi – Midbrain structures involved in auditory processing and reflexive responses to sound. 15.​Superior Colliculi – Midbrain structures involved in visual processing and controlling eye movements. 16.​Tegmentum – The ventral (bottom) part of the midbrain, involved in movement control and autonomic functions. 17.​Periaqueductal Gray – A region surrounding the cerebral aqueduct that plays a key role in pain modulation and defensive behaviors. 18.​Cerebral Aqueduct – A narrow passage connecting the third and fourth ventricles, allowing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to circulate. 19.​Substantia Nigra – A midbrain structure involved in movement control and dopamine production, degeneration of which is associated with Parkinson’s disease. 20.​Red Nucleus – A midbrain structure involved in motor coordination and limb movements. Forebrain (Diencephalon) 21.​Diencephalon – A subdivision of the forebrain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus, important for sensory and autonomic functions. 22.​Thalamus – A major relay center for sensory information that transmits signals to appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.  20 23.​Massa Intermedia – A band of tissue connecting the two halves of the thalamus. 24.​Sensory Relay Nuclei – Groups of neurons in the thalamus that process and transmit sensory information to the cortex. 25.​Lateral Geniculate Nuclei – Thalamic structures involved in visual processing. 26.​Medial Geniculate Nuclei – Thalamic structures involved in auditory processing. 27.​Ventral Posterior Nuclei – Thalamic structures involved in processing touch and proprioceptive signals. 28.​Hypothalamus – A small but crucial brain region that regulates autonomic functions, hormone release, temperature control, hunger, and emotions. 29.​Pituitary Gland – The "master gland" controlled by the hypothalamus, responsible for hormone production and regulation. 30.​Optic Chiasm – The point where the optic nerves cross, allowing visual information from each eye to be processed by both hemispheres. 31.​Decussate – The crossing over of nerve fibers from one side of the brain or spinal cord to the other. 32.​Contralateral – Refers to structures or functions occurring on the opposite side of the body. 33.​Ipsilateral – Refers to structures or functions occurring on the same side of the body. 34.​Mammillary Bodies – Small structures located at the base of the brain involved in memory and limbic system functions. Forebrain (Telencephalon) 35.​Telencephalon – The largest part of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and basal ganglia, responsible for higher-order functions. 36.​Cerebral Cortex – The outermost layer of the brain responsible for perception, thought, language, and voluntary movement. 37.​Fissures – Deep grooves in the cerebral cortex that divide the brain into lobes. 38.​Sulci – Shallow grooves on the brain surface that increase surface area. 39.​Gyri – Raised ridges on the brain surface that help maximize cortical area. 40.​Longitudinal Fissure – The deep groove that separates the two cerebral hemispheres. 41.​Cerebral Commissures – Large nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres, allowing communication between them.  21 42.​Corpus Callosum – The largest cerebral commissure, enabling communication between the left and right hemispheres. 43.​Central Fissure – A deep groove separating the frontal and parietal lobes. 44.​Lateral Fissure – A groove that separates the frontal and temporal lobes. Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex 45.​Frontal Lobe – The region responsible for decision-making, voluntary movement, reasoning, and personality. 46.​Parietal Lobe – Involved in processing sensory information such as touch, temperature, and spatial awareness. 47.​Temporal Lobe – Associated with hearing, memory, language processing, and emotional responses. 48.​Occipital Lobe – The primary visual processing area of the brain. 49.​Precentral Gyri – The ridge in the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement (primary motor cortex). 50.​Postcentral Gyri – The ridge in the parietal lobe responsible for processing sensory input (primary somatosensory cortex). 51.​Superior Temporal Gyri – The ridge in the temporal lobe involved in auditory processing and language comprehension. Neuronal Structures & Organization 52.​Neocortex – The largest and most evolutionarily advanced part of the cerebral cortex, involved in complex cognition. 53.​Pyramidal Cells – Large neurons in the cerebral cortex with pyramid-shaped cell bodies, involved in motor control and cognition. 54.​Stellate Cells – Small star-shaped neurons in the cerebral cortex that primarily process local sensory input. 55.​Columnar Organization – A vertical arrangement of neurons in the cortex, where neurons within a column process similar types of information. Limbic System (Emotion & Memory) 56.​Hippocampus – A key structure involved in memory formation and spatial navigation.  22 57.​Limbic System – A group of interconnected brain structures involved in emotions, motivation, and memory. 58.​Amygdala – A structure involved in emotional processing, particularly fear and aggression. 59.​Cingulate Cortex – A part of the limbic system involved in emotion, learning, and memory. 60.​Cingulate Gyrus – A ridge on the medial surface of the brain that plays a role in emotional regulation. 61.​Fornix – A bundle of nerve fibers that connects different parts of the limbic system. 62.​Septum – A brain structure involved in reward and pleasure responses. Basal Ganglia (Movement & Reward) 63.​Basal Ganglia – A group of structures involved in movement regulation, habit formation, and reward processing. 64.​Caudate – A major component of the basal ganglia involved in movement and learning. 65.​Putamen – A structure that works with the caudate nucleus in motor control. 66.​Striatum – The combined structure of the caudate and putamen, playing a key role in movement and reward. Globus Pallidus – A component of the basal ganglia involved in regulating voluntary movement.​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Chapter 5 Research methods of biopsychology PART ONE: Methods of Studying the Nervous System Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain ​ Contrast X-ray Techniques (p. 124) – Imaging methods that use a special dye to enhance the contrast between different brain structures. ​ Cerebral Angiography (p. 124) – A contrast X-ray technique used to visualize blood vessels in the brain.  23 ​ Computed Tomography (CT) (p. 124) – A technique that uses X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain. ​ Positron Emission Tomography (PET) (p. 125) – An imaging method that tracks radioactive substances to monitor brain activity. ​ Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) (p. 125) – A radioactive glucose analog used in PET scans to track brain metabolism. ​ Ligands (p. 125) – Molecules that bind to specific receptors in the brain, often used in PET imaging to study neurotransmitter systems. ​ Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) (p. 125) – A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain. ​ Spatial Resolution (p. 125) – The ability of an imaging technique to distinguish between small structures in the brain. ​ Diffusion Tensor MRI (p. 126) – An MRI-based technique used to visualize white matter tracts in the brain. ​ Functional MRI (fMRI) (p. 126) – A brain imaging technique that measures changes in blood oxygen levels to track brain activity. ​ BOLD Signal (p. 127) – Blood oxygen level-dependent signal; used in fMRI to measure neural activity. ​ Temporal Resolution (p. 127) – The ability of an imaging technique to detect changes in brain activity over time. ​ Functional Ultrasound Imaging (fUS) (p. 127) – A technique that uses ultrasound waves to measure brain activity in real-time. ​ Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) (p. 127) – A technique that uses magnetic fields to temporarily stimulate or disrupt brain activity. ​ Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) (p. 128) – A non-invasive technique that applies weak electrical currents to the brain to influence neural activity. ​ Transcranial Ultrasound Stimulation (tUS) (p. 128) – A method that uses ultrasound waves to modulate brain activity. Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity ​ Electroencephalography (EEG) (p. 128) – A technique that records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp. ​ Alpha Waves (p. 128) – Brain wave patterns associated with relaxation and wakefulness.  24 ​ Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) (p. 129) – Electrical responses of the brain that occur in reaction to specific stimuli. ​ Sensory Evoked Potential (p. 129) – A type of ERP that reflects brain responses to sensory stimuli. ​ Signal Averaging (p. 129) – A method used to reduce noise in EEG recordings by averaging multiple trials. ​ P300 Wave (p. 129) – A large positive deflection in the EEG signal associated with attention and decision-making. ​ Far-Field Potentials (p. 130) – Electrical signals recorded from the nervous system that originate from distant neural structures. ​ Magnetoencephalography (MEG) (p. 130) – A technique that records magnetic fields generated by neural activity in the brain. ​ Electromyography (p. 130) – A technique that measures muscle activity through electrical signals. ​ Electrooculography (p. 130) – A technique that records eye movements by measuring electrical activity in eye muscles. ​ Skin Conductance Level (SCL) (p. 131) – A measure of baseline skin conductivity, associated with sympathetic nervous system activity. ​ Skin Conductance Response (SCR) (p. 131) – Temporary changes in skin conductance in response to stimuli. ​ Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) (p. 131) – A method that records electrical activity of the heart. ​ Hypertension (p. 132) – A condition characterized by high blood pressure. ​ Plethysmography (p. 132) – A technique used to measure changes in blood volume within an organ or tissue. Invasive Physiological Research Methods ​ Stereotaxic Atlas (p. 132) – A guide that provides coordinates for precise targeting of brain structures in animals. ​ Bregma (p. 132) – A reference point on the skull used in stereotaxic surgery. ​ Stereotaxic Instrument (p. 132) – A device used to precisely position electrodes or other instruments in the brain. ​ Aspiration (p. 133) – A method of lesioning brain tissue by suctioning it out. ​ Reversible Lesions (p. 133) – Temporary disruptions of brain activity that allow for controlled studies of brain function.  25 Pharmacological Research Methods ​ Cannula (p. 136) – A small tube inserted into the brain to deliver drugs or other substances. ​ Neurotoxins (p. 136) – Substances that damage or destroy specific neurons. ​ Autoradiography (p. 136) – A technique that uses radioactive tracers to visualize biochemical activity in the brain. ​ Cerebral Dialysis (p. 136) – A method used to measure neurotransmitter levels in the brain. ​ Immunocytochemistry (p. 137) – A technique that uses antibodies to visualize specific proteins in cells. ​ In Situ Hybridization (p. 137) – A technique used to detect specific RNA sequences in cells. Genetic Methods ​ Gene Knockout Techniques (p. 138) – Methods used to deactivate specific genes to study their function. ​ Gene Knockin Techniques (p. 138) – Methods used to introduce specific genetic modifications. ​ Transgenic Mice (p. 138) – Mice that have had foreign genes inserted into their genome. ​ Gene Editing Techniques (p. 138) – Methods used to modify specific genes within an organism. ​ CRISPR/Cas9 Method (p. 138) – A precise gene-editing technology that allows for targeted modifications. ​ Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) (p. 139) – A protein that glows under UV light and is used to label cells in genetic research. ​ Brainbow (p. 139) – A genetic technique that labels neurons with multiple colors to trace connections. ​ Opsins (p. 139) – Light-sensitive proteins used in optogenetics. ​ Optogenetics (p. 140) – A technique that uses light to control the activity of neurons. PART TWO: Behavioral Research Methods of Biopsychology  26 Neuropsychological Testing ​ Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (p. 142) – A widely used test to assess intelligence in adults. ​ Digit Span (p. 142) – A measure of short-term memory capacity. ​ Token Test (p. 142) – A test used to assess language comprehension. ​ Sodium Amytal Test (p. 143) – A procedure used to determine language dominance in the brain. ​ Dichotic Listening Test (p. 143) – A test that presents different sounds to each ear to study brain lateralization. ​ Repetition Priming Tests (p. 143) – Tests that measure implicit memory by assessing faster responses to repeated stimuli. Behavioral Methods of Cognitive Neuroscience ​ Cognitive Neuroscience (p. 144) – The study of the neural mechanisms underlying cognition. ​ Paired-Image Subtraction Technique (p. 144) – A method used in neuroimaging to isolate specific cognitive processes. ​ Default Mode Network (p. 145) – Brain regions that are active during rest. Biopsychological Paradigms of Animal Behavior ​ Open-Field Test (p. 146) – A test used to assess anxiety and locomotion in animals. ​ Elevated Plus Maze (p. 146) – A test used to measure anxiety in animals. ​ Pavlovian Conditioning (p. 147) – Learning through association of stimuli. ​ Operant Conditioning (p. 147) – Learning through reinforcement and punishment. ​ Morris Water Maze (p. 148) – A test used to study spatial learning and memory in rodents. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​  27 Introduction to health Psychology Health psychology can be thought of as a subspecialty of psychology, but also as a discipline-specific descriptor within the broad interdisciplinary field of behavioural medicine. Behavior medicine- is the field concerned with the development of behavior-science knowledge and techniques relevant to the understanding of physical health and illness and the application of this knowledge and these techniques to diagnosis, prevention treatment rehabilitation. Over the years, several applied subspecialties of health psychology have developed. ­ ClinicalHealth psychology is one of the most influential (American Psychological Association, 2011).­Clinical health psychologists help people diagnosed with health conditions manage the ­symptoms of their health condition and address the psychological consequences of these symptoms. Occupational health psychology is another subspecialty that focuses on the prevention and management of ­occupational stress, the prevention of injury, and the maintenance of health of workers (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). Another subspecialty, community health psychology, concerns itself with community-wide health needs and health-care systems.More specifically, community health psychologists aim to effect change and to promote access and cultural competence within health-care systems so that these systems can more effectively serve diversity within communities. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Three Key Components of the Biopsychosocial Model 1.​ Biological Factors ○​ Focuses on the physiological and genetic influences on health and behavior. ○​ Includes brain structure and function, neurotransmitters, genetics, hormones, and the nervous system. ○​ Example: A person’s genetic predisposition to depression or a neurological disorder like Parkinson’s disease. 2.​ Psychological Factors  28 ○​ Examines emotions, thoughts, personality traits, cognitive functions, and coping mechanisms. ○​ Includes mental health conditions, learning abilities, self-perception, and emotional responses. ○​ Example: Stress, anxiety, cognitive distortions, and learned behaviors influencing decision-making. 3.​ Social Factors ○​ Involves cultural, environmental, and interpersonal influences on behavior and health. ○​ Includes relationships, socioeconomic status, family dynamics, cultural beliefs, and life experiences. ○​ Example: Social support, access to healthcare, peer pressure, and cultural attitudes toward mental health. ​ ​ The health belief model (Janz & Becker, 1984; Rosenstock, 1974) has been very influential in health psychology (Glanz & Bishop, 2010). The model postulates that readiness to take action in relation to health problems is a function of people’s beliefs (e.g., perceived severity of one’s health condition, perceived risk of getting the condition, perceived barriers to adopting a ­health-promoting behaviour) and of their perception of he benefits of taking action to prevent health problems (Champion & Skinner, 2008; Rosenstock, 1974). The Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), developed by Albert Bandura, explains how people learn and develop behaviors through the interaction of personal, environmental, and behavioral factors. It emphasizes observational learning, self-efficacy, and reciprocal determinism as key drivers of behavior change. Key Components of Social Cognitive Theory 1.​ Reciprocal Determinism ○​ Behavior is influenced by the interaction between personal factors (beliefs, attitudes, knowledge), environmental factors (social norms, role models), and behavior itself (past experiences, habits).  29 ○​ Example: A person who wants to eat healthy (personal factor) is influenced by seeing healthy food options at work (environmental factor), which leads to healthier eating habits (behavioral factor). 2.​ Observational Learning (Modeling) ○​ People learn behaviors by watching others, especially role models such as parents, teachers, peers, or media figures. ○​ Example: A child learns to exercise regularly by watching their parents go to the gym. 3.​ Self-Efficacy ○​ The belief in one’s ability to successfully perform a behavior. Higher self-efficacy leads to greater motivation and persistence. ○​ Example: A person who believes they can quit smoking is more likely to attempt and succeed in quitting. 4.​ Reinforcements ○​ Rewards and punishments influence whether a behavior is repeated. Reinforcements can be internal (personal satisfaction) or external (social approval, incentives). ○​ Example: A person who receives praise for eating healthy is more likely to continue doing so. 5.​ Behavioral Capability ○​ Having the knowledge and skills to perform a behavior. ○​ Example: A person who learns how to cook nutritious meals is more likely to maintain a healthy diet. 6.​ Expectations ○​ Beliefs about the likely outcomes of a behavior. People engage in behaviors they believe will lead to positive results. ○​ Example: If a person expects that exercising will lead to weight loss, they are more likely to work out regularly. 7.​ Self-Regulation ○​ The ability to control one's behavior through goal-setting, monitoring, and self-reinforcement. ○​ Example: A student sets a study schedule and rewards themselves after completing assignments.  30 Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) - Expanded Explanation The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), developed by Icek Ajzen (1991), is an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). TPB explains how human behavior is influenced by beliefs and how intention plays a key role in determining whether a person will engage in a particular behavior. According to Ajzen (1991, n.d.), behavior is determined by three types of beliefs: 1.​ Behavioral Beliefs ○​ Beliefs about the likely consequences of a behavior. ○​ These shape attitudes toward the behavior, whether favorable or unfavorable. ○​ Example: If someone believes that exercising regularly leads to better health, they will have a positive attitude toward exercising. 2.​ Normative Beliefs ○​ Beliefs about what others expect or social pressures regarding the behavior. ○​ These influence subjective norms, or perceived social pressure to perform or avoid the behavior. ○​ Example: If a person believes their friends and family expect them to exercise, they may feel pressured to do so. 3.​ Control Beliefs ○​ Beliefs about factors that facilitate or hinder the behavior. ○​ These influence perceived behavioral control, which is the confidence a person has in their ability to perform the behavior. ○​ Example: If someone believes they have enough time, money, and access to a gym, they will feel in control of their ability to exercise. The TPB Model and How It Works As illustrated in Figure 1.4 (referenced in the text): ​ Behavioral Beliefs → Shape Attitudes (positive or negative feelings about a behavior). ​ Normative Beliefs → Shape Subjective Norms (perceived social pressure).  31 ​ Control Beliefs → Shape Perceived Behavioral Control (belief in one’s ability to perform the behavior). ​ These three factors jointly influence a person’s intention to engage in a behavior. ​ Stronger intentions lead to a higher likelihood of actual behavior, provided the person has actual control over their actions. Strengths and Applications of TPB ​ TPB has been widely used in health psychology to predict behaviors such as: ○​ Adherence to diet and physical activity (Vallance et al., 2012). ○​ Medication adherence and preventive health behaviors (Welsh et al., 2013). ○​ Smoking cessation, vaccination, and weight management. ​ Research (Armitage & Conner, 2001) supports TPB as an effective predictor of intention and self-reported behavior, though it is weaker at predicting actual behavior. Criticism of TPB Despite its usefulness, TPB has been criticized for: 1.​ Overemphasis on rational decision-making – It neglects emotions and impulsive behavior (Munro et al., 2007). 2.​ Limited consideration of cultural influences – The model assumes universal decision-making processes, which may not apply to all cultures. 3.​ Distinction between Desire and Intention – Desire alone does not always lead to action. 4.​ Distinction between Self-Efficacy and Perceived Control – Self-efficacy (confidence in abilities) may be a separate predictor from perceived behavioral control. The Common-Sense Model of Self-Regulation (CSM), also known as the Illness Representation Model, is a psychological framework that explains how individuals perceive, interpret, and manage their health conditions. Developed by Leventhal, Meyer,  32 and Nerenz (1980), the model highlights the role of personal beliefs and emotions in shaping health behaviors and coping strategies. Key Components of the Common-Sense Model (CSM) 1.​ Illness Representations (Cognitive and Emotional Perceptions)​ Individuals form mental representations of their illness based on personal experiences, social influences, and medical information. These perceptions influence how they respond to their condition. ○​ Identity – What symptoms do I have? What is my illness? ○​ Cause – What caused my illness? (e.g., genetics, lifestyle, stress) ○​ Timeline – Is my illness acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term)? ○​ Consequences – How will this illness impact my life (physically, emotionally, socially)? ○​ Control/Cure – Can I manage or recover from this illness through treatment or behavior change? 2.​ Emotional Representations​ People also experience emotional reactions (e.g., fear, anxiety, frustration) to their illness, which influence how they cope. 3.​ Coping Strategies​ Based on their illness representations, individuals adopt strategies to manage their health: ○​ Problem-focused coping (e.g., seeking medical treatment, changing lifestyle) ○​ Emotion-focused coping (e.g., denial, avoidance, seeking social support) 4.​ Appraisal of Coping Outcomes​ Individuals assess whether their coping efforts are effective. If their symptoms improve, they may continue their strategies. If not, they may adjust their approach. Applications of the CSM ​ Used in health psychology to understand how patients manage chronic conditions (e.g., diabetes, cancer, heart disease). ​ Helps healthcare professionals design interventions tailored to patients' beliefs and emotions.  33 ​ Explains non-adherence to medical advice (e.g., patients not taking medication because they believe their illness is not serious). From a Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective, the Common-Sense Model of Self-Regulation (CSM) aligns with the principles of Cognitive-Behavioral Theory (CBT), which emphasizes the interaction between thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in health-related decision-making. How the CSM Relates to CBT Principles CBT posits that maladaptive thoughts (cognitive distortions) contribute to emotional distress and unhealthy behaviors. Similarly, in the CSM, individuals form illness representations (beliefs about their illness) that influence their emotional responses and coping strategies. These beliefs can be rational or distorted, leading to adaptive or maladaptive behaviors. Key Cognitive-Behavioral Processes in the CSM 1.​ Cognitive Appraisal of Illness (Beliefs & Perceptions) ○​ In CBT, individuals’ thoughts shape their emotions and behaviors. In the CSM, patients interpret their illness based on prior experiences, social influences, and medical knowledge. ○​ Example: A person with chronic pain may believe, "I will never recover," leading to hopelessness and avoidance of treatment. 2.​ Emotional Responses & Coping Strategies ○​ CSM highlights that illness beliefs trigger emotional reactions (e.g., fear, anxiety, depression), which influence behavior. ○​ CBT suggests that these emotional responses stem from cognitive distortions (e.g., catastrophizing, black-and-white thinking). ○​ Example: A cancer patient might experience health anxiety due to exaggerated beliefs about their prognosis. 3.​ Behavioral Coping Mechanisms ○​ Maladaptive coping strategies (e.g., avoidance, non-compliance with treatment) align with CBT concepts of behavioral reinforcement. ○​ CBT-based interventions focus on behavioral activation and exposure therapy to modify these maladaptive patterns.  34 ○​ Example: A person with diabetes who believes, “Dieting won’t help,” may avoid making dietary changes, reinforcing unhealthy habits. 4.​ Coping Appraisal & Feedback Loop ○​ In CBT, individuals monitor and re-evaluate their thoughts and behaviors over time. ○​ In the CSM, individuals assess whether their coping strategies are effective and adjust accordingly. ○​ Example: If a person takes medication and sees improvement, they may revise their belief that "treatment is useless," leading to better adherence. CBT-Based Interventions for Health Behavior Change 1.​ Cognitive Restructuring – Identifying and modifying distorted illness beliefs. 2.​ Behavioral Activation – Encouraging engagement in positive health behaviors. 3.​ Exposure Therapy – Addressing avoidance behaviors (e.g., fear of medical tests). 4.​ Self-Monitoring & Reflection – Helping patients track symptoms and progress. 5.​ Psychoeducation – Teaching patients about illness management to reduce misconceptions. Conclusion The CBT perspective on the Common-Sense Model highlights the importance of addressing illness beliefs, emotional responses, and maladaptive coping strategies. By challenging negative thought patterns and reinforcing adaptive behaviors, CBT interventions can improve treatment adherence, health outcomes, and overall well-being. Key Components of the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) 1. Stages of Change TTM proposes that behavior change occurs gradually through six non-linear stages: 1.​ Precontemplation (Not Ready) ○​ The individual is not considering behavior change. ○​ May lack awareness of the problem or feel unmotivated. ○​ Example: A smoker who denies that smoking is harmful.  35 2.​ Contemplation (Thinking About It) ○​ The person acknowledges the issue but is ambivalent about change. ○​ They weigh the pros and cons (decisional balance). ○​ Example: A smoker who knows smoking is unhealthy but feels unable to quit. 3.​ Preparation (Getting Ready) ○​ The individual is committed to change and may start taking small steps. ○​ Example: A smoker sets a quit date and researches nicotine replacement options. 4.​ Action (Making the Change) ○​ The person actively engages in behavior change. ○​ Requires effort, motivation, and support. ○​ Example: A smoker who has stopped smoking and is using nicotine patches. 5.​ Maintenance (Sustaining the Change) ○​ The new behavior is sustained for at least six months. ○​ Focus is on preventing relapse and maintaining motivation. ○​ Example: A former smoker who continues to avoid cigarettes and manages cravings. 6.​ Termination (Permanent Change) [Optional] ○​ The behavior is fully integrated, and relapse is no longer a temptation. ○​ Example: A smoker who no longer feels the urge to smoke, even in social settings. 2. Processes of Change (How Change Happens) TTM identifies ten cognitive and behavioral strategies that help individuals progress through the stages: ✅ Cognitive (Mental) Strategies: ​ Consciousness Raising – Learning about the problem (e.g., reading about smoking risks). ​ Dramatic Relief – Emotional response (e.g., fear after seeing a lung cancer patient).  36 ​ Self-Reevaluation – Reflecting on personal values (e.g., “Do I want to be a healthy role model for my kids?”). ​ Environmental Reevaluation – Considering the social impact (e.g., secondhand smoke harms others). ​ Social Liberation – Recognizing external support (e.g., smoking bans in public places). ✅ Behavioral Strategies: ​ Self-Liberation – Making a firm commitment (e.g., setting a quit date). ​ Counterconditioning – Replacing unhealthy behaviors (e.g., chewing gum instead of smoking). ​ Stimulus Control – Avoiding triggers (e.g., not buying cigarettes). ​ Reinforcement Management – Using rewards (e.g., treating oneself for reaching milestones). ​ Helping Relationships – Seeking support (e.g., joining a support group). 3. Decisional Balance & Self-Efficacy ​ Decisional Balance – Individuals weigh the pros and cons of changing. ​ Self-Efficacy – Confidence in one’s ability to succeed increases with progress. Application of the Transtheoretical Model ✅ Smoking Cessation Programs – Tailoring interventions based on readiness to quit.​ ✅ Weight Management – Supporting long-term dietary and exercise habits.​ ✅ Chronic Disease Management – Helping patients adhere to medications.​ ✅ Mental Health Treatment – Addressing behaviors like substance abuse or therapy engagement. Conclusion  37 The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) highlights that behavior change is a process, not an event. Understanding where an individual is in this process allows for personalized interventions to increase success rates in achieving long-term change. Overall summary of health psych 2. An Introduction to Body Systems and Psychological Influences on Health This section explains how the body's systems function and how psychological factors influence physical health. Key Topics: ​ Body Systems – Overview of major biological systems: ○​ Cardiovascular System – Heart and blood vessels, responsible for circulation. ○​ Gastrointestinal System – Digestive organs, including stomach and intestines. ○​ Respiratory System – Lungs and airways, responsible for oxygen intake and carbon dioxide removal. ○​ Renal System/Urinary System – Kidneys and bladder, responsible for filtering waste from the blood. ○​ Immune System – The body's defense system against infections and diseases. ​ Psychological Influences on Body Systems ○​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord that affects bodily functions. ○​ Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – Regulates involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and respiration. ○​ Endocrine System – Glands that release hormones, influencing metabolism, stress response, and growth. ​ The Development of the Stress Concept – How stress is defined and studied in psychology and medicine. ​ Emotion – The role of emotions in health, including stress, anxiety, and mood disorders. Psychological Factors in the Development of Medical Illnesses  38 ​ Gastrointestinal Ulcers: Executive Monkeys and Helpless Rats – A study on stress-induced ulcers in animals, demonstrating how psychological stress impacts physical health. ​ Vasovagal Reactions – A sudden drop in heart rate and blood pressure, often due to extreme emotional distress. ​ High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) – The role of stress and lifestyle in blood pressure regulation. ​ Other Diseases – Psychological factors influencing chronic illnesses like diabetes, heart disease, and autoimmune disorders. ​ Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) – The study of how the brain, nervous system, and immune system interact. ○​ Development of the Field – How researchers discovered links between stress and immune function. ○​ Stress, Immune Function, and Illness – The impact of chronic stress on immune response and disease susceptibility. ​ Future Directions – Upcoming research in health psychology and psychoneuroimmunology. ​ Summary, Critical Thought Questions, Recommended Reading – Tools for deeper understanding. 3. Stress, Coping, and Health This section explores how stress affects health and how people cope with stressful situations. Key Topics: ​ Introduction ○​ Good vs. Bad Stress – Differentiating eustress (positive stress) from distress (negative stress). ○​ Acute vs. Chronic Stress – Short-term vs. long-term stress and their effects on the body. ​ Stressful Situations – Common sources of stress: ○​ Job and Primary Role Stress – Work-related stress and its impact on health.  39 ○​ Life Events – Major life changes (e.g., divorce, loss, relocation) and their psychological impact. ○​ Caregiver Stress – The burden of caring for someone with a chronic illness or disability. ○​ Sociological Stress: SES, Gender, and Race – How socioeconomic status (SES), gender differences, and racial disparities affect stress levels and health outcomes. Summary This table of contents provides an overview of health psychology, including: ​ Major theories and models of health behavior. ​ The relationship between body systems and psychology. ​ The impact of stress on health. ​ How individuals cope with and manage health-related challenges. Would you like a deeper explanation of any specific section? 😊 4o You said: define this in depth ChatGPT said: Detailed Explanation of the Contents This section of the health psychology textbook covers stress and coping, health psychology in healthcare, illness prevention, and behavior change interventions related to eating, smoking, and substance use. Below is an in-depth definition and explanation of each topic.  40 3. Stress, Coping, and Health (Continued) This section explores how individuals experience, interpret, and manage stress. Key Topics: ​ Contributors to Stress: The Person – Individual factors (e.g., personality, genetics) that affect stress responses. ​ Contributors to Stress: The Interaction of Person and Situation – How personal characteristics and situational factors together influence stress. ​ Appraisal – How people evaluate stressful events as threats, challenges, or irrelevant. ​ Coping Strategies: ○​ Problem-Focused vs. Emotion-Focused Coping – Problem-focused coping addresses the root cause, while emotion-focused coping manages feelings. ○​ Social Support – The role of friends, family, and community in reducing stress. ○​ The Great Gender Divide – Differences in how men and women cope with stress. ○​ Other Coping Strategies – Various approaches such as mindfulness, exercise, and cognitive reframing. ​ Stress and Mental Health ○​ Stress and Sleep – How stress disrupts sleep patterns and contributes to disorders like insomnia. ○​ Stress Management – Techniques such as relaxation training, biofeedback, and cognitive-behavioral therapy. ○​ Social Networking, Stress, and Online Social Support – The impact of social media and digital interactions on stress levels. ​ Future Directions – Advancements in stress research and interventions. ​ Summary, Critical Thought Questions, Recommended Reading – Tools to reinforce learning. 4. Health Psychology within the Healthcare System This chapter focuses on how health psychology applies to medical settings.  41 Key Topics: ​ Introduction – Overview of health psychology in clinical and healthcare environments. ​ Health Systems in the United States, Canada, and Elsewhere – Comparative analysis of healthcare policies, access, and outcomes across different countries. ​ Impact of Health Systems on Health Psychology – How medical infrastructure, insurance, and public health policies shape mental and physical health. ​ Types of Health Services – Discussion of primary care, specialty care, mental health services, and alternative medicine. ​ Patterns of Healthcare Use – How patients engage with medical systems. ○​ Overuse – When individuals seek unnecessary medical care (e.g., overprescription of antibiotics). ○​ Delayed Healthcare – When individuals avoid or postpone seeking medical treatment, often due to financial or psychological barriers. ​ Adherence to Medical Care ○​ Definition and Measurement – What adherence means and how it is tracked. ○​ Rates and Predictors of Adherence – Factors influencing why people follow (or do not follow) medical advice. ○​ Improving Adherence – Strategies to increase medication compliance and lifestyle adherence. ​ Patient Satisfaction – How psychological factors influence satisfaction with healthcare experiences. ​ Medical Cost Offset of Psychological Interventions – How mental health treatments reduce overall medical costs. ​ Future Directions – Trends in healthcare delivery, digital health interventions, and patient-centered care. ​ Summary, Critical Thought Questions, Recommended Reading – Tools for further study. 5. Prevention of Illness and Health-Promotion Intervention This section covers preventative healthcare and behavioral change models.  42 Key Topics: ​ Importance of a Healthy Lifestyle – The role of diet, exercise, sleep, and mental health in preventing disease. ​ Core Constructs of the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) of Behavior Change – A model explaining how people modify health behaviors. ○​ Stages of Change – The five stages: Precontemplation → Contemplation → Preparation → Action → Maintenance. ○​ Processes of Change – Cognitive and behavioral techniques that help people move through the stages. ○​ Decisional Balance – Weighing the pros and cons of behavior change. ​ Critical Assumptions of TTM – Examining what makes this model effective or limited. ​ Empirical Support for TTM ○​ Stage Distribution – How people move between stages of change. ○​ Pros and Cons across 12 Behaviors – How TTM applies to various health behaviors (e.g., quitting smoking, starting exercise). ○​ Processes of Change across Behaviors – How different behaviors require different change strategies. ○​ Relationship between Stages and Processes of Change – The interaction of motivation, readiness, and action. ​ Applied Studies – Research examples demonstrating TTM in real-world interventions. ​ Challenging Studies – Critiques and alternative perspectives on TTM. ​ Increasing Impacts with Multiple Behavior Change Programs – How addressing multiple behaviors at once (e.g., smoking, diet, exercise) enhances health outcomes. ​ Applying TTM Interventions to Exercise, Nutrition, and Smoking – Specific applications of TTM in health programs. ​ Limitations of the Model – Recognizing where TTM may fall short. ​ Future Directions – Emerging research in behavior change models. ​ Summary, Critical Thought Questions, Recommended Reading – Reflection and study tools.