Research Process Handouts PDF

1. The Research Process Research process consists of a series of steps necessary to conduct research and the desired sequencing of these steps. It consists of a number of closely related activities. However, such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence....

1. The Research Process Research process consists of a series of steps necessary to conduct research and the desired sequencing of these steps. It consists of a number of closely related activities. However, such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence. Thus, the various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive. Furthermore, the activities do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order. Therefore, at each step in the research process, the researcher has to anticipate the requirements of the subsequent steps constantly. However, the following are the major steps in a research process: (a) Formulating the research problem (b) Extensive literature survey (c) Developing the hypothesis (d) Preparing the research design (e) Determining sample design (f) Collecting the data (g) Executing the project (h) Analyzing data (i) Testing hypothesis (j) Interpreting the data, and (k) Preparing the report or presenting the results Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research 1.1. Formulating the research problem Formulating the research problem consists of identifying the problem to be addressed, gauging its severity, and knowing what research was previously done by others to solve it. A research problem generally refers to some difficulty faced to which a solution is sought in the context of either a theoretical or a practical situation. The research problem can also be a continuance of research started or completed previously. There are two types of research problems. These are problems that relate to states of nature and problems that relate to relationships between variables. At the beginning, a researcher must identify the problem that he wants to address. He/she may first describe the problem in a broad term. The problem must be a researchable one. It should not be a problem that can be solved with a quick fix, without needing research. For example, if the problem is shortage of irrigation water in a particular area, there is no need to do research to solve this problem. This is because that problem would not lend itself to scientific investigation. The problem can be fixed quickly if there are enough financial and material resources. For example, rain harvesting or harnessing lakes or rivers or digging wells to supply water for irrigation needs only initial capital investment and running costs for maintenance. Therefore, the viability of a specific solution has to be considered before framing a research problem. The formulation of a general topic into a precise research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Two steps are involved in framing the research problem, namely, understanding the problem carefully, and rephrasing it into Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research meaningful terms for analysis. To understand the problem well, it is good to discuss on it with colleagues and peers as well as with others having special expertise and experiences in the subject matter. Thus, the research problem may be identified by the researcher, society, other researchers, etc. At research and higher learning institutions, the researcher can seek support from experienced senior staff members to further elucidate and narrow down the problem and rephrase it in operational terms. In governmental organizations, the problem may be already earmarked for a solution. Thus, the researcher can discuss on the problem with the relevant organization and get further clarifications on what respects are involved in its possible solutions. After formulating the problem, the researcher should write down a brief description of the problem. Thus, the problem should be defined clearly since this will help in making distinctions between relevant data and irrelevant ones. At this juncture, it is also important to validate the objectivity and rationality of the background facts about the problem. The objective is solving a researchable problem, which is key for defining the data to be collected, the characteristics of the relevant data, relations to be explored, the choice of techniques to use for the investigations, and the form of the final report. 1.2. Literature survey The main output of reviewing literature is information as to what data and other materials exist to assist in postulating the research problem in a meaningful setting. In this connection, the researcher should scrutinize all available literature on the topic so that he/she Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research will have information as to what research has been done before on the problem and what results have been found, thereby identifying gaps that need to be bridged through his/her intended research. If the researcher finds from the literature that there already exists a solution to the problem, there is no need to do additional research and that solution can be adopted. Thus, if a solution is already available, there is no need to re-invent the wheel. There are usually two types of literature that a research should review. These are the conceptual literature and empirical literature. The conceptual literature is literature concerned with concepts and theories on the topic whereas empirical literature is literature concerned with hitherto conducted studies to solve similar or related problems (usually not earlier than ten years ago and preferably not older than five years ago). Thus, for literature review, abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are required. Academic journals, conference proceedings, reports, books etc., should be used depending on the nature of the problem. In particular, key literature related to earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study intended, should be reviewed carefully. 1.3. Formulating hypotheses Formulating working hypotheses is a basic requirement in the process of most research problems. Therefore, after reviewing literature, the researcher should state a working hypothesis or hypotheses. Developing hypotheses is important since they provide the focal point for the research. Researchers formulate hypotheses using inductive logic. The most important aspect of a hypothesis is that it must be ‘falsifiable’. In a hypothesis, the Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research researcher expresses his expectations. Thus, he/she makes a prediction by putting a hypothesis to a test. Suppose a researcher wants to investigate the effect of protein rich feed on carcass weight of a bullock, he or she can formulate a hypothesis and describe it predictively as follow: Protein rich feed increases carcass weight of a bullock and its meat yield. If this prediction is proved true, then the researcher should accept the hypothesis. After the experiment, if the researcher finds that this prediction does not hold true, the researcher will have to reject the hypothesis. A hypothesis should be very specific and restricted to the piece of research in hand since it has to be tested. A hypothesis guides the researcher by delimiting the area of research and keeping him/her on the appropriate track of the research question. It sharpens the researchers’ thinking and focuses attention on the more important aspect of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used. Approaches for formulating research hypotheses: (a) Discussing with colleagues and experts about the problem and the prospect of seeking a solution; (b) Examining data concerning the problem, if available, for possible trends, peculiarities, and other clues; (c) Results of review of previous research on similar problems; and (d) Exploratory personal investigations, which involves original preliminary studies, field interviews done to secure insights into the practical aspects of the problem. In certain circumstances, some problems may be encountered where a working hypothesis is not required. This is the case with Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research exploratory or formulative research, which does not aim at testing the hypothesis. 1.4. Preparing research design After formulating the research problem clearly, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he/she will have to state the conceptual structure within which research can be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible, yielding maximal information. The purpose of planning a research design is to provide for collection of relevant evidence with minimal effort, time, and money. However, how much of all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, namely, (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. Exploration is defined as the initial research into a hypothetical or theoretical idea. It is where a researcher has an idea or has observed something, and seeks to understand more about it to lay the initial groundwork for future research. Description refers to seeking more information about a newly discovered initial groundwork or phenomenon by collecting as much information as possible instead of making guesses or elaborate models to predict the future. Diagnosis refers to studies that aim to quantify a problem or a situation or a phenomenon to determine its existing level. Experimentation is conducting experiments by manipulating variables. Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research If the purpose of the research study is exploration, it is appropriate to formulate a flexible research design, which provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem. However, if the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables, a suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the collected data. There are several research designs, which include, experimental and non- experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs, etc.), out of which the researcher must select one for his own project. Planning the research design that is appropriate for a particular research problem requires consideration of the following points: (i) the means of obtaining the information; (ii) availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any); (iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection; (iv) the time available for research; and (v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose. 1.5. Determining sampling design All the items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. If it was possible to cover all terms of Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research a population in an inquiry, no element of chance would exist and the highest accuracy would be obtained. However, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. Besides, an inquiry of all items of a population will involve a lot of time, money, and energy. Hence, only a few items are selected for a study. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample. The researcher must select a sampling design. A sampling design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples, each element has a known probability of being selected in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow this possibility. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques. 1.6. Conducting research The research should be conducted appropriately and timely to obtain adequate and dependable data. A hypothesis should be tested or the research questions should be answered by conducting proper studies and evaluating the results. 1.7. Collecting data In research, it is necessary to collect appropriate data. Several ways of collecting data exist. These ways differ widely in terms of cost, time, and the requirement for other resources. Primary Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research data are collected either through experiment or through survey. When the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes data that require quantitative measurements through which to test the hypothesis. However, in the case of a survey, data can be collected by observation, through personal interviews, telephone interviews, by mailing of questionnaires, through schedules, etc. 1.8. Analyzing data Data analysis requires a number of closely related activities such as establishing categories of data through coding, tabulating them, and drawing statistical inferences. Data coding is often done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing improves the quality of the data for coding. After coding, the data are ready for tabulation. Tabulating data is the method through which the data are organized in tables. Computers are often used for organizing data because they not only save time but also enable researchers to handle bulky data on a number of variables. Analyzing the data is done through computing means, standard deviations, percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well- defined statistical formulae often using statistical software. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions. Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research 1.9. Testing hypothesis Accepting, modifying or rejecting a hypothesis come at the end of a research process. Hypothesis testing follows data analysis. In this process, the researcher askes the following questions to test the hypotheses, if any, he/she had formulated earlier. Is the hypothesis verified or falsified by the results of the research? Various tests, such as Chi-square test, t-test, F-test, etc., have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested using one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. A hypothesis is accepted if the data generated through the research support it; and rejected if the data generated through the research do not support it. On the other hand, sometimes, the researcher may not have formulated a hypothesis in the research process, perhaps, because he/she dealt with descriptive or exploratory research that does not require any hypothesis. In such a case, the conclusion of the current research drawn based on the data generated now can be stated as hypotheses to be tested in subsequent research to be conducted in the future. 1.10. Interpreting data This is the step in which the researcher interprets the findings of his/her research and arrives at some form of generalization or building up of a theory. If the researcher had no formulated a hypothesis in the research process, he should explain his/her Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research findings on the basis of some theory. This is known as interpretation. Interpretations may lead to new questions and further research. 1.11. Preparing research reports If the research problem is successfully solved or if new findings are obtained, the researcher should communicate the results of his/her research. For this purpose, the researcher should write up a report and communicate his/her findings to the audiences that have interests or stakes in the work done. These mainly include the scientific community, the wider public, or any other stakeholders. The reports are often prepared in the forms of scientific papers, conference proceedings, posters, technical reports, policy briefs, etc. In general, reports should be written carefully with inclusion of all required contents, including title, abstract, introduction, a clear statement of the problem investigated, objective of the research, methodology adopted, results and discussions, and the conclusion. 2. Types of Research Research is often categorized as basic research, applied research, descriptive research, analytical research, quantitative or qualitative research, conceptual or empirical research, experimental or non- experimental research, retrospective or prospective research, and cross- sectional or longitudinal research. Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research  First, based on the application of the results, research is broadly divided into two, i.e., basic research and applied research. 2.1. Basic research Basic research, also called fundamental research or pure research, is the type of research that is conducted to generate new knowledge to enhance the science in question but not for immediate practical application of the results. Basic research is the basis of most of the scientific advances made so far. 2.2. Applied research Applied research is the type of research done to generate new knowledge and innovation for immediate application and practical benefits. In other words, it is original research conducted chiefly to obtain knowledge with a specific useful application. Specifically, it is concerned with the application of a theory to find a solution to a problem or problems. Most of the experiments conducted in agriculture are applied in nature, which are aimed at solving specific problems or improving existing practices. 2.3. Action research advances the aims of basic and applied research to the point of utilization. In contrast to the first two typos, action research is primarily concerned with the production of results for immediate utilization or application. It improves methods and practices and generates technologies and innovations — for application to specific technological situations. Quantitative versus qualitative research The distinction between quantitative research and qualitative research is primarily based on design of the research used. Thus, the classification of the two types of research mainly hinges on the nature of data collected. Quantitative research Quantitative research approach is characterized by much greater control over the research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables. In quantitative research, the knowledge generated is based on gathering numerical data and analysing them. Usually, quantitative research is deductive in nature such that the researcher begins with an existing Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research theory, where ideas have been already reduced into variables, and then collects evidences to verify if the theory is supported by his/her findings. Thus, a quantitative research approach involves generation of data in quantitative terms which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. The quantitative research approach is further sub- divided into inferential, experimental, and simulation approaches to research. The objective of inferential approach to research is to form a database from which to infer characteristics or relationships of the population. This often means survey research where samples from the population are investigated to determine the characteristics, and it is then inferred whether the population has the same characteristics. Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the behavior of the process over time.” Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future conditions. Qualitative research Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions, and behavior. Research in such a situation is a function of the researcher’s insights and impressions. Under this approach, research consists of collecting data in a narrative form rather in a numerical form to understand a particular situation or phenomenon or process. This type of research depends mainly on qualitative quantifications rather than numerical quantification. Qualitative research is exploratory and inductive in nature, as it begins with the postulation that truth as Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research  subjective rather than being objective. Qualitative research or its design is customarily used under any condition that little is known about a particular phenomenon or concept. After the concepts, ideas, and themes are identified and known about a phenomenon, through qualitative research, it is usual to investigate the phenomenon further using a quantitative approach. Mostly, the techniques of interviews and focus group discussions are used in collecting data under qualitative research approach. The results are generated either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. In this approach, the data are mostly analysed through coding and describing them verbally as a narration. Experimental research vs. non-experimental research Experimental research Quantitative research designs, which are used for measuring the relations between independent variable and dependent variables, could be either experimental or non-experimental. An experimental research is the type of research in which the independent variable is directly manipulated by the researcher by keeping other variables constant as much as it could be. In this type of research, a cause and effect relationship is established by excluding all other factors that might be responsible for a particular outcome. The cause and effect relationship is investigated in two ways. First, the applied treatment is supposed to be the cause of change or difference. Therefore, it is important to give the treatment a sufficient time to cause the change. Secondly, after observing the situation or the phenomenon, the researcher seeks to understand the cause of change. In this situation, the researcher begins from the effects to outcomes and determine causation. If a quantitative Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research study is conducted beginning from the cause and proceeds to the effects, it is called experimental research. In this case, the independent variable can be observed, introduced, controlled, or manipulated by the investigator. Non-experimental research Non-experimental research is the type of experiment used to describe, differentiate, or examine associations between or among variables, groups, or situations. Thus, if a quantitative study begins from the effects to trace the cause, it is non-experimental research. In this case, unlike in experimental research, it is not possible to observe, introduce, control or manipulate the independent variable since the postulated cause has already occurred. In this type of research, manipulating variables, assigning treatments randomly, and comparing groups are normally absent. Thus, with a hindsight the researcher relates the outcomes to the causes. Non-experimental designs are often conducted because of certain conditions. These include the following: In a situation where variables cannot be manipulated, for instance, experiments involving human subjects need care, and there are limitations to conducting experiments involving humans. This is attributed to ethical obligations or to the fact that certain variables should not be manipulated. For example, it is unethical to conduct research on the effect of smoking on the health of 12-year-old boys in a town or city or village. In some other instances, independent variables have already occurred and, therefore, manipulation is impossible. In this case, on the basis of timing of data collection, non-experimental Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research  designs can be categorized into cross-sectional or longitudinal. In cross-sectional research, data on the recognized variables are collected at one point in time, and the relationships between them are decided. However, in a longitudinal study, data are collected at different points over time. Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research Lecture Notes in Research 2 – Methods of Agricultural Research