The Essence of Psychology PDF

I. Introduction: What is Psychology What is psychology? To provide you with a reasonable answer to this complex question, this introductory chapter will take a general look at the field of psychology and psychologists. We will trace the origin of the word “psychology”, explore the beginning of psych...

I. Introduction: What is Psychology What is psychology? To provide you with a reasonable answer to this complex question, this introductory chapter will take a general look at the field of psychology and psychologists. We will trace the origin of the word “psychology”, explore the beginning of psychology as a science, examine early and contemporary approaches to psychology and describe research methods in psychology and identify some of psychology’s careers and areas of specialization. 1.1 Meaning and origin of the word “Psychology” The word ‘psychology’ is of Greek origin: ‘psyche’ can be freely translated as ‘mind’ or ‘soul’, and ‘logos’ indicates ‘study’ or ‘line of teaching’; thus we have ‘ study of the mind’. This definition exemplifies what psychology was essentially about up to the end of the nineteenth century. The word psychology is symbolized by the Greek letter psi (φ). 1.2 Definition of Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. There three aspects to this definition: science, behavior, and mental processes. Let’s examine behavior first. Behavior is everything we do that can be directly observed-two people kissing, a baby crying, sneezing are examples. Mental processes are the thoughts, feelings and motives that each of us experiences privately, but which can not be observed directly. As science, psychology uses systematic methods to study behavior and mental processes. Psychology’s methods are not casual. They are carefully and precisely planned and conducted. 1.3 Goals of Psychology  The study of psychology has four basic goals: a) Describe – The first goal of psychology is to observe behavior and describe, often in minute detail, what was observed as objectively as possible. It addresses the question, “How do people think, feel, and act in various situations?” b) Explain – While descriptions come from observable data, psychologists must go beyond what is obvious and explain their observations. In other words, “why did the subject do what he or she did? Why did this behavior occur? Which factors influenced this outcome?” are treated under explanation. c) Predict – Once we know what happens, and why it happens, we can begin to speculate what will happen in the future. There’s an old saying, which very often holds true: "the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior." d) Control – Once we know what happens, why it happens and what is likely to happen in the future, we can exert control over it. In other words, if we know you choose abusive partners because your father was abusive, we can assume you will choose another abusive partner, and can therefore intervene to change this negative behavior. Not only do 1  psychologists attempt to control behavior, they want to do so in a positive manner, they want to improve a person’s life, not make it worse. This is not always the case, but it should always be the intention. 1.4 Scientific Psychology Psychology as a scientific discipline has a short history. Although it dates back to the time of Plato and Aristotle as a branch of philosophy, it was in 1879 that Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. It is generally agreed that this event heralded the beginning psychology as a scientific discipline in its own right. Prior to this, Psychology had generally been regarded as a branch of philosophy. Hence, credit for the establishment of psychology as a science usually goes to Wilhelm Wundt considered by many as the “father of psychology.” During the first decades of psychology’s existence as a formal discipline, psychologists came to hold quite different views about the nature of the mind and the best ways to study it. About the same time fundamental questions were raised about what should be studied in Psychology: Should Psychology be the study of the mind, should it study Behavior, or should both mind and Behavior be included? Different influential psychologists of the time held quite different views on the nature of mind and the proper subject matter for psychology. Schools of thought formed around these leaders as their students adopted their ideas. These schools of thought are known as the schools of Psychology. Schools, in this context, can best be thought of as groups of psychologist who held common beliefs about both the subject matter of psychology and what methods of study should be used. Most schools developed in revolt against traditional methods and beliefs at the time. However, they did not always replace earlier schools, but sometimes existed alongside them. Understanding these schools can help us make sense of the multitude of ideas and methods which currently characterize psychology. Hence, a brief description of these schools is given below. 1.4.1 Early Schools of Psychology a. Structuralism Inspired by the pioneering work of Fechner and other scientists, Wilhelm Wundt and his many collaborators founded the school of structuralism. Wundt believed that psychology should concern itself with the elementary processes of conscious experience. The structure of consciousness and immediate mental experience, he contended, could be broken down into basic elements and compounds in the same way that, in chemistry; one can describe the structure of water or air. The goal of the structuralists was to find out the units, or elements, which make up the mind. They thought that as in chemistry, the first step in the study of the mind should be the description of the basic or elementary units of sensation(sights, sounds, tastes, smells, and touch which arise from stimulation of the sense organs) image(experiences not actually present), and feelings( love, fear, joy and so on) which compose the mind. In an effort to study the elements of consciousness in what they believed was an analytical and objective way, structuralists devised a technique known as introspection. This simply means that people were asked to consider and report on their own mental 2  processes as they experienced a particular object or event. This was to be done in a pre specified and systematic way and required much training. For example, to be introspective about a flower, the reporter would be asked to describe the sensations of experiencing it in terms of its shape, size, color, texture, and so on. The method of introspection proved difficult and inadequate, largely because of conflicting findings between introspectionists in different laboratories. Reaching agreement on the basic elements of a particular mental experience proved an impossible task and (predictably, perhaps) reporting on mental activity in humans was not quite so straight forward as observing what happens in a test tube when two chemicals are combined. Another prominent member of structuralists school, Edward Bradford Titchner, developed and extended Wundt’s idea and later introduced them to the USA.. Structuralism declined in the early 1920s. b. Functionalism  Whilst the structuralists emphasized the structure of the mental activity, the functionalists were concerned with the purposes, functions, of the mental processes.  Functionalism was influenced by biology and many of the concepts ‘borrowed’ from that discipline continue to influence psychology today.  The work and ideas of Charles Darwin had a monumental impact on the emergence of functional psychology. His theory of evolution provided an account of the way living organisms change and develop over time through a process of natural selection.  According to Darwin, living organisms have characteristics such as extreme strength, speed of movement, and temperament, which are variable even within the same species. Organisms whose characteristics were best suited to their environment survived and reproduced, while organisms whose characteristics were less adaptable died out. Survivors would transmit to the next generation those characteristics which enable them to survive.  In this way a particular species might change quite extensively over several generations and, in some cases an entirely new species could evolve.  William James (1842 -1910) was the leading figure in functional psychology. Influenced greatly by Darwin, he held that the function of consciousness was to enable humans to behave in ways which would aid survival through adaptation to the environment.  Functionalists were interested in the fact that mind and Behavior are adaptive- they enable an individual to adjust to a changing environment. Where these adaptive behaviours were repeated frequently they became habits. Habits, James believed, provided stability and predictability in society.  In addition to the study of the functions of consciousness and the role of habits, he turned his attention to emotions, and to the concept of self.  As with the structuralists, the main method of study was introspection, although functionalists although encouraged the use of experimentation. The emphasis on the importance of observing similarities and differences between varying species greatly influenced the development of comparative psychology. 3 c. Gestalt psychology  The leading proponents of Gestalt view were Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Kurt Koffka ( 1876- 1941) and Wolfgang Kohler (1887 -1967).  Gestalt psychologists opposed the atomist approach of the structuralists and later the behaviorists. They argued that people perceive the world in ‘wholes’. “ The whole is greater than the sum of its parts exemplifies this view.  These psychologists argued that the mind is not made up of a combination of elements. The German word gestalt refers to form, whole, configuration or pattern.  Accordingly, the Gestaltists maintained that the mind should be thought of as resulting from the whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and organizations with in this pattern.  In brief, the Gestaltists acknowledged consciousness; they just refused to look at it in little pieces.  Their goal was to understand the phenomenon of conscious experience in holistic terms and their subject matter was subjective experience with emphasis on perception, memory and thinking.  The tendency of the Gestalt psychologists to rely for their data on subjective observations and reports of conscious experience, rather than carefully controlled behavioral methods, attracted criticism from the behaviorists.  Nonetheless the influence of gestalt psychology is great in some areas of contemporary psychology, for example in the study of perception and problem solving. d. Behaviorism  This school of psychology came into being with John B. Watson( 1878-1958). Other proponents include E. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner.  In an influential paper, “Psychology as the behaviorist views it”, in 1913, Watson attacked the structuralist emphasis on consciousness and mental experience and also condemned the use of introspection as a method which claimed to be reliable and objective.  Psychology, he believed, should be about the study of observable behavior that all could agree upon. He contended that psychologists should “… never use the terms consciousness, mental states, introspectively verify, imagery, and the like.”  Behaviorists did not reject the existence of mind and consciousness as critics have sometimes suggested. Rather they viewed these concepts as impossible to observe and contributing little to a scientific approach in psychology.  Though Watson’s view of the nature of human beings was considered by critics to be mechanistic and oversimplified, his focus on the study of observable behavior allowed him to formulate clear hypotheses which could be tested by experimentation. This shift in emphasis towards the use of more objective and systematic methods was one of his greatest contributions to psychology. e. Psychoanalysis  Psychoanalysis, which developed from the work and theories of Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939), proposed an account of human mental activity which relied heavily on the notion of an unconscious mind.  Freud originated his theory in response to patients whose symptoms, although real, were not based on physiological malfunctioning. Hence, in the course of treating 4  psychiatric patients over many years, Freud became convinced that many of the nervous symptoms displayed by patients could not be explained purely from a physiological point of view. Nor could the rational and systematic laws of science be applied to irrational and self-defeating behaviors such as phobias and conversion hysterias (physical complaints that have no apparent physiological cause).  Just as people have conscious motives or wishes, Freud argues, they also have powerful unconscious motives that underlie their conscious intentions.  Freud considered the relation between conscious awareness and unconscious mental forces analogues to the visible tip of an ice berg and the vast, submerged hulk that lies out of sight beneath the water.  Freud argued that conscious awareness is merely the tip of the mental iceberg. Beneath the visible tip, he said, lies the unconscious part of the mind, containing hidden wishes, passions, guilty secrets, unspeakable yearnings, and conflicts between desire and duty. We are not aware of our unconscious urges and thoughts as we go casually about our daily business, yet they make themselves known- in dreams, slips of the tongue, apparent accidents, and even jokes.  Before Freud’s time, most people believed their own and other’s actions were directed by their conscious wishes and beliefs. In contrast, Freud emphasized that these conscious desires themselves may reflect unconscious conflicts and compromises.  The methods used by psychoanalysts flow from their aims. They seek to interpret meanings, that is, infer underlying wishes, fears, and patterns of thought, from an individual’s conscious, verbalized, thought and behavior. Based on this goal, a psychoanalyst observes a patient’s dreams, fantasies, posture, and subtle behavior toward the therapist. Thus, psychoanalysis lends itself to the case study method.  In classical psychoanalysis, therapy involves Transference, the client’s projection and displacement of thoughts and feelings on to the analyst; Free association, where the client says whatever comes into mind, no matter how trivial or irrelevant it may seem; and dream analysis, which involves the analyst interpreting the content of the client’s dreams.  Though the psychoanalytic process may sound quite straightforward, it is usually difficult and time consuming.  In conclusion, the discourse made by the structural, Gestalt, and functional schools of psychology have become part of the general store of psychological knowledge; but the schools as such, have vanished.  Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis on the other hand are still, in modified forms among the current psychological perspectives. 1.4.2 Modern Perspectives of psychology  As outlined above, for the first 50 years or so of its existence as a separate discipline, psychology was organized around separate schools, each with its own distinct ideas of what psychology should be about and how it should be studied.  Today with the realization that the problems psychologists have set themselves will not be solved by one particular set of ideas and methods, it is accepted that many different routs must be taken if a full understanding is to be reached about psychological functioning. Hence, within each field of psychology can be seen many 5  different approaches to the study of psychological phenomena, and some of the ideas of early schools continue to influence many of the modern day approaches.  Approach in this context is not easy to define exactly, but it is to do with basic assumptions that are made about what human beings are like, theories used in order to explain human and animal behavior and the kinds of research methods used to study them.  These approaches include physiological, behaviorist, psychodynamic, cognitive, socio-cultural and humanistic. a) The physiological approach  Psychologists who subscribe to this approach look to biology as a means of describing and explaining psychological functioning.  This perspective holds that an understanding of the brain and the nervous system is central in the understanding of behavior, thought and emotion. That is, our behavior, even what we think and feel, is assumed to be linked to our physiological make up  Some of the labels attached to researchers who take this approach, albeit in different ways, are biopsychologist, neuropsychologist, psychobiologist, and physiological psychologist.  Physiological psychologists are interested in a wide range of phenomena and issues. Research has developed rapidly over recent years into the functions of the nervous system (particularly the brain) and the hormonal system, and into how these two systems interact and influence behavior and mental activity. b) The Behaviorist Approach  Behaviorists or learning theorists focus on the influence of the environment. They choose not to be concerned with the internal mechanisms which occur inside the organism. Put more simply, according to this approach, learning and experience the kind of person you become.  The behaviorist approach to psychological functioning is rooted in the works of Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson and Hull all of whom studied learning in the form of conditioning.  Behaviorism had a profound influence on the course of psychology during the first half of the twentieth century c) The cognitive Approach  This approach contrasts sharply with that of both the psychoanalysts and the behaviorists.  Cognitive psychologists believe that the event s occurring within a person must be studied if behavior is to be fully understood.  These internal events, often referred to as mediators, since they occur between the stimulus and the behavior, include perception, thinking processes such as problem solving, memory and language.  What cognitive psychologists have in common is an approach which stresses the importance of studying the mental processes which affect our behavior and enable us to make sense of the world around us.  Clearly the processes that cognitive psychologists study are not directly observable; one cannot lift off the top of an individual’s head and observe memory at work! However, it is recognized that insights into mental processes may be inferred from 6  an individual’s behavior, provided that such inferences are supported by objective, empirical data. Therefore, the experimental method, with its emphasis on objectivity control, and replicability, is often used.  One of this perspective’s most important contributions has been to show how people’s thoughts and explanations affect their actions, feelings and choices.  The cognitive approach is one of the strongest forces in psychology today, and it has inspired an explosion of research on the intricate workings of the mind. d) The socio-cultural approach  The socio-cultural perspective focuses on social and cultural forces outside the individual. It emphasizes that culture, ethnicity, and gender are essential to understanding behavior, thought and emotion.  Most of us underestimate the impact of other people, group affiliations, and cultural rules on our actions. We are like fish that are unaware they live in water; so obvious is water in their lives.  Socio-cultural psychologists study the water- the social and cultural environment that people “swim” in everyday.  Within this perspective, social psychologists focus on social rules and roles, how groups affect attitudes and behavior, why people obey authority, and how other people- spouses, lovers, friends, bosses, parents and strangers, affect each of us.  Cultural psychologists examine how cultural rules and values- both explicit and unspoken- affect people’s development, behavior and feelings. e) The psychodynamic Approach  This approach focuses largely on the role of motivation and past experience in the development of personality and hence, behavior.  It has arisen from Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. Freud’s pioneering approach was the impetus of many similar theories, which share many of the same assumptions about human beings but which differ in conceptual detail. Hence, many of Freud’s original ideas have been have been adapted and modified by subsequent psychodynamic theorists known as post-Freudians or Neo-Freudians. Some of these post Freudians include Carl Jung, Adler, Anna Freud, Melanie Kline and others.  However, almost all of them emphasize the unconscious aspects of the mind, conflict between biological instincts and society’s demands, and early family experiences. f) The Humanistic Approach  For many years psychology was dominated by two great schools: the psychoanalysts and the behaviorists.  Towards the middle of the 20th century, a third great force appeared which offered a view of human beings as a free and generous individual with the potential for growth and fulfillment. This 3rd force gave rise to the humanistic approach.  Humanistic psychologists ( such has Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow) believe that psychology should be concerned with the subjective, conscious experience of the individual.  They emphasize the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny. 7  They regard the use of scientific methods as inappropriate for the study of human beings.  A major aim of psychology, they believe, should be to help people maximize their potential for psychological growth.  The humanistic view is optimistic. Humans are seen as striving to achieve their potential- to achieve the maximum personal growth within individual limitations.  This has had its greatest influence in psychotherapy and in the human-potential and self-help movements.  In summary, although all the differences among the perspectives mentioned are real, not all psychologists feel that they must wear allegiance to one approach or another.  Many perhaps most, are eclectic, applying in their research or practice what they believe to be the best features of diverse schools of thought. Research Methods in Psychology Psychology is not an absolute science and is often referred to as a 'Social Science' or a 'Soft Science.' This is because it deals with human thoughts, feelings, and behavior, and as we are all aware, humans are not always predictable and reliable. Instead, we interact with our environment in ways that alter how we behave, how we think, and how we feel. Nevertheless, research plays an extremely important role in psychology. Research helps us understand what makes people think, feel, and act in certain ways; allows us to categorize psychological disorders in order to understand the symptoms and impact on the individual and society; helps us to understand how intimate relationships, development, schools, family, peers, and religion affect us as individuals and as a society; and helps us to develop effective treatments to improve the quality of life of individuals and groups. In this sense, psychological research is typically used for the following:  Study development and external factors and the role they play on individuals' mental health  Study people with specific psychological disorders, symptoms, or characteristics  Develop tests to measure specific psychological phenomenon  Develop treatment approaches to improve individuals' mental health In the following sections, you will learn about how research is conducted and the different types of research methods used to gather information Naturalistic observation  In naturalistic observation, psychologists observe behavior, in real world settings and make no effort to manipulate or control the situation.  It often involves counting behaviors, such as number of aggressive acts, number of smiles, etc.  Psychologists conduct naturalistic observations at football games, day care centers, kindergartens, college dormitories, shopping malls, restaurants, and other places people live in and frequent. 8  Case Study  A case study is an in-depth look at a single individual. It refers to following a single case, typically over an extended period of time.  It is used mainly by clinical psychologists when, for either practical or ethical reasons, the unique aspects of an individual’s life can not be duplicated.  A case study provides information about one person’s fears, hopes, fantasies, traumatic experiences, upbringing, family relationships, health, or anything that helps the psychologist understand the person’s mind and behavior.  A case study can involve naturalistic observations, and include psychological testing, interviews, interviews with others, and the application of a treatment. A case study can gather extensive information, both qualitative and quantitative and it can be helpful in better understanding rare cases or very specific interventions.  In case study, usually only one case is involved, severely limiting the generalization to the rest of the population. It can also be be very time consuming and can involve other problems specific to the techniques used, including researcher bias. Survey  Everyone has probably heard of this and some of you may have been involved in research involving surveys. They are often used in the news, especially to gather viewer opinions such as during a race for president.  Psychologists use surveys to find out about a people’s experience and attitudes by asking a large sample of participants questions about their attitudes and behaviors.  The two most frequently used tools of survey researchers are questionnaires, which participants fill out by themselves, and interviews in which researchers ask questions using a standard format.  In surveys it is possible to gather large amounts of information in a relatively short time, especially now with many surveys being conducted on the internet.  However, survey data is based solely on subjects’ responses which can be inaccurate due to outright lying, misunderstanding of the question, placebo effect, and even the manner in which the question is asked Correlational Studies  Correlation means relationship, so the purpose of a correlational study is to determine if a relationship exists, what direction the relationship is, and how strong it is.  This is a useful strategy because the more strongly events are correlated (related or associated), the more effectively we can predict one from the other.  However, based on results from correlational research one cannot make any assumptions of cause and effect (explain how third variable can be involved, or how the variables can influence each other). Experimental Methods  An experiment is a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied is manipulated and all others are held constant. 9  If the behavior under study changes when the factor is manipulated, we say that the manipulated factor causes the behavior to change.  Every experiment has two types of variables:  Independent Variable (IV) – the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter (input variable)  Dependent Variable (DV) – the outcome variable (results of the experiment) By defining our variables that we will use to test our theory we derive at our Hypothesis which is a testable form of a theory. As an example of this, let’s say that we have a theory that people who drive sports cars are more aggressive in theory interactions with others. Our independent variable would be the type of car you drive (sports, sedan, SUV, etc.). Our dependent variables, the outcome of our research, would be aggression. We would need to further define aggression so that it is something we can test such as speeding or cutting other people off in traffic. We now have the basics of our very simple experiment and can write our Hypothesis: People who drive sports cars drive over the speed limit more frequently than people who drive other types of cars. Research Biases in an Experiment Now we’ve got a hypothesis which is the first step in doing an experiment. Before we can continue, however, we need to be aware of some aspects of research that can contaminate our results. In other words, what could get in the way of our results in this study being accurate? These aspects are called research biases, and there are basically three main biases we need to be concerned with. · Selection Bias – occurs when differences between groups are present at the beginning of the experiment. · Placebo Effect – involves the influencing of performance due to the subject’s belief about the results. In other words, if I believe the new medication will help me feel better, I may feel better even if the new medication is only a sugar pill. This demonstrates the power of the mind to change a person’s perceptions of reality. · Experimenter Bias – The same way a person’s belief’s can influence his or her perception, so can the belief of the experimenter. If I’m doing an experiment, and really believe my treatment works, or I really want the treatment to work because it will mean big bucks for me, I might behave in a manner that will influence the subject. Controlling for Biases After carefully reviewing our study and determining what might affect our results that are not part of the experiment, we need to control for these biases. To control for selection bias, most experiments use what’s called Random Assignment, which means assigning the subjects to each group based on chance rather than human decision. To control for the placebo effect, subjects are often not informed of the purpose of the experiment. This is called a Blind study, because the subjects are blind to the expected results. To control for experimenter biases, we can utilize a Double- Blind study, which means that both the experimenter and the subjects are blind to the purpose and anticipated results of the study. 10 What we’ve focused on what is called Experimental Methods, the true experiment. It involves randomized assignment of subjects, standardized instructions, and at least one IV and one DV. There are several other types of research that are not as rigorous, but that you need to be aware of. Sub-fields in psychology 1. Clinical Psychology  Clinical psychologists diagnose and treat emotional and behavioral disorders that range form mild to very severe. They are trained to do psychotherapy with highly disturbed people, as well as with those who are simply troubled or unhappy or who want to learn to handle their problems better.  Most clinical psychologists have a Ph. D, Ed.D. And a smaller but growing number have a Psy.D.  Clinical Psychologists typically do four or five years training of graduate work in psychology, plus at least a year’s internship under the direction of a practicing psychologist.  People often confuse clinical psychologist with three other terms: psychotherapist, psychoanalyst, and psychiatrist. But these terms mean different things.  A psychotherapist is simply anyone who does any kind of psychotherapy (psychological treatment)  A psychoanalyst is a person who practices/ uses the particular psychotherapeutic techniques, which originated with Sigmund Freud and his followers. Anyone who has the training who has the training to use these techniques can be a psychoanalyst.  A psychiatrist is a medical doctor (M.D.) who has done 3 to 4 years of residency training in psychiatry, the medical specialty concerned with mental disorders, maladjustment, and abnormal behavior. During the residency period, a psychiatrist learns to diagnose and treat mental disorders under the supervision of more experienced physicians.  Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists do similar work, but psychiatrists, because of their medical training, tend to focus on possible biological causes of mental disorders and to treat these problems with medication. They can write prescriptions, whereas clinical psychologists cannot (or at least not yet; in many states, psychologists are pressing for prescription- writing privileges). Psychiatrists are however, are often untrained in current psychological theories and methods. 2. Counseling Psychology  Counseling psychologists are concerned with “normal” problems of adjustment that most of us face sooner or later, such as choosing a career or coping with marital problems.  They deal with countless personal problems that do not involve psychological disorders.  A number of counseling psychologists try to help people who are having problems with; family living; these are marriage and family counselors. 3. School Psychology  Much of the school psychologist’s job consists of diagnosing learning difficulties and trying to remedy them. 11  Using tests and information gained from consultations with the students and his parents, the school psychologist tries to pinpoint the problem and suggest action to correct it.  For instance, a school psychologist might suggest that a poor reader be assigned to a remedial reading class.  Other school psychologists are involved in vocational and other forms of counseling. These are the school counselors. 4. Educational Psychology  Educational psychology may include school psychology, but educational psychologists as such are usually involved with more general, less immediate problems than are most school psychologists or school counselors.  Educational psychologists are especially concerned with increasing the efficiency of learning in school by applying their psychological knowledge about learning and motivation to the curriculum. 5 Industrial and/or Organizational Psychology  Industrial/or Organizational psychologists study behavior in the workplace.  They address the problems of training personnel, improving working conditions, and studying working effects of automation on humans.  The primary concern of industrial/or organizational psychologists is to make-work as pleasant as pleasant and productive as possible.  They apply psychology to problems of management and employee training, to supervision of personnel, to improving communication within the organization, to counseling the employees, and to alleviate industrial strife. 6. Social Psychology  Social psychologists study the way we affect and are influenced by other people, both in groups and in intimate relationships.  This focus covers a wide range of possible interests. For example, it includes the study of the ways in which we perceive other people and how those perceptions affect our behavior toward them.  Similarly, it involves concerted efforts to understand the determinants of interpersonal influences and of attitude change.  Thus, social psychologists might study how perceptual stereotypes affect interactions or how the decisions of a committee member are influenced by what others on the committee do or say. 7. Developmental Psychology  The developmental psychologists study mental, physical and social development of humans over the entire life span (from the prenatal period through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.  Child psychology, the study of children’s behavior, comprises a large part of developmental psychology. But, developmental changes also occur in adolescence, adulthood, and old age; and so the study of these changes is also a part of developmental psychology. 12