The Blood and Lymphatic System PDF

The blood and lymphatic system  Blood approximately 5 liters in an average 70kg individual can be described as a protein-rich fluid with cellular components  The protein rich portion is called plasma (~55%)  The cellular components are called fo...

The blood and lymphatic system  Blood approximately 5 liters in an average 70kg individual can be described as a protein-rich fluid with cellular components  The protein rich portion is called plasma (~55%)  The cellular components are called formed elements (~45%)  Composition of blood Figure 11.1 Composition of blood. (a) When blood is transferred to a test tube containing an anticoagulant (to prevent clotting) and then centrifuged, it consists of three layers. The transparent straw-colored or yellow top layer is the plasma, the liquid portion of blood. The thin middle buffy coat layer consists of leukocytes and platelets. The bottom layer contains the erythrocytes. (b) Micrograph of the formed elements in blood. Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, Monocytes, and lymphocytes are all different forms of white blood cells. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Blood Plasma the fluid portion of the blood mostly water also contains  dissolved ions  nutrients  waste products  proteins  Blood plasma Albumin  most abundant of all plasma proteins  maintains blood’s osmotic pressure Fibrinogen and Prothrombin  necessary for blood clotting Antibodies  necessary for immune defense  Blood – Formed elements Red blood cells  carry oxygen and carbon dioxide White blood cells  defend the body against pathogens Platelets  function in blood clotting Figure 11.2 Plasma and formed elements. (a) Ingredients of plasma. Plasma is approximately 92% water and 8% dissolved or suspended solutes. (b) Types, functions, and descriptions of the formed elements. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Hematopoiesis Figure 11.3 Hematopoiesis. Multipotent stem cells give rise to two specialized stem cells. The myeloid stem cell gives rise to still other cells, which become red blood cells, platelets, and all the whole blood cells except lymphocytes. The lymphoid stem cell gives rise to lymphoblasts, which become lymphocytes. Though they have granules like the granular leukocytes, natural killer cells also arise from the lymphoid stem cells. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Red blood cells (RBCs) (Erythrocytes) transport oxygen and carbon dioxide  contain hemoglobin to which O2 and CO2 bind biconcave in shape  allows more surface area for gas exchange 4 to 6 million per mm3 of whole blood Lower than normal number of RBCs or https://www.thoughtco.com/red-blood-cells-373487 hemoglobin is called anemia  Hemoglobin Figure 11.4 Hemoglobin contains four polypeptide chains.. There is an iron-containing heme group in the center of each chain. Oxygen combines loosely with iron when hemoglobin is oxygenated. Oxyhemoglobin is bright red, and deoxy hemoglobin is a dark marron color. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Sickle-cell disease an inherited hemolytic anemia caused by an abnormal form of hemoglobin affected individuals have fragile, sickle-shaped RBCs The sickle-shaped RBCs easily tear open Figure 11A Sickle-shaped red blood cells, as seen by a scanning electron  As a result, the person has far microscope. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition) fewer RBCs than normal, and anemia symptoms result  Regulation of red blood cell production The kidneys release increased amounts of erythropoietin (epo) whenever the oxygen capacity of the blood is reduced Epo stimulates the red bone marrow to speed up its production of red blood cells Once the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is sufficient, the kidneys cut back on their production of epo Figure 11.5 Regulation of red blood cell production. The kidneys release increased amounts of erythropoietin whenever the oxygen capacity of the blood is reduced. Erythropoietin stimulates the red bone marrow to speed up its production of red blood cells, which carry oxygen. Once the oxygen- carrying capacity of the blood is sufficient to support normal cellular activity, the kidneys cut back on their production of erythropoietin. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Destruction of red blood cells Macrophages (in the liver and spleen) engulf and break down old RBCs Hemoglobin is released and separates into its three components The globin is digested into its component amino acids (which are recycled by the body) The iron is returned to the bone marrow for reuse The heme is converted by the liver into bile pigments (Bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin) are excreted in bile) Bile pigments are eliminated by the kidneys and the digestive tract  White Blood Cells (WBCs) also called leukocytes many live only a few days  Others live months or years 5,000 – 11,000 per mm3 of blood also found in tissue fluid and lymph fight infection Figure 11.6 Mobility of white blood cells. When injury or infection occurs, white blood cells can squeeze between the cells of a capillary wall and enter destroy dead or dying body cells the tissues of the body. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition) recognize and kill cancerous cells  Types of white blood cells Granular leukocytes Neutrophils have multilobed nucleus (therefore called polymorphonuclear) Some granules take up acid stain, and some take up basic stain (creating an overall lilac color) Phagocytose pathogens Eosinophils have bi-lobed nucleus Granules take up the dye eosin and become a deep red color increase in number in the event of a parasitic worm infection Basophils have a U-shaped or lobed nucleus Granules take up the basic stain and become dark blue in color associated with allergic reactions  Types of white blood cells Agranular leukocytes Lymphocytes have spherical nucleus provide specific immunity to pathogens and their toxins There are two types: B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes Monocytes have a kidney-shaped nucleus largest of the WBCs After traveling into the tissues, they differentiate into macrophages phagocytose pathogens, old cells, and cellular debris Two groups of leukocytes: granulocytes and agranulocytes  Platelets (Thrombocytes) formed from fragmentation of megakaryocytes Platelets are produced at a rate of 200 billions per day have no nucleus last at most ten days involved in coagulation Components of Human Blood  Which of the following is an example of granulocytes? a) Monocyte Concept b) Basophil Check c) Macrophage d) Lymphocyte e) All of the above  A patient blood sample has an abnormally high number of eosinophils, the likely reason is… Concept a) Inflammation Check b) Allergy c) Parasitic infection d) Internal bleeding  Hemoglobin is found in… a) Blood plasma Concept b) WBC Check c) RBC d) Platelets  Blood type Genetics Blood type refers to the inherited antigens present on the surface of red blood cells  ABO blood groups ABO blood typing is based on the presence or absence of two possible proteins, called antigen A and antigen B, on the surface of RBC A person with type A antigen has type A blood A person with type B antigen has type B blood A person with both A and B antigens has type AB blood A person with no A or B antigens has type O blood There are three alleles responsible for the ABO blood type system: IA, IB, i  The IA allele gives type A, IB gives type B, and i gives type O  As both IA and IB are dominant over i, only ii people have type O blood  Individuals with IAIA or IAi have type A blood  Individuals with IBIB or IBi have type B  IAIB people have both phenotypes, , because A and B are codominant  ABO blood groups ABO blood typing is based on the presence or absence of two possible proteins, called antigen A and antigen B, on the surface of RBC Type Genotype A IAIA or IAi B IBIB or IBi AB IAIB O ii  In the ABO system, blood type depends on the presence or absence of antigens A and B on the surface of red blood cells Figure 11.8 Types of blood. In these drawings, A and B antigens are represented by different shapes on the red blood cells. The possible anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma are shown for each blood type. Notice that an anti-B antibody cannot bind to an A antigen, and vice versa. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Cross-matching before a blood transfusion Figure 11.9 Cross-matching before a blood transfusion No agglutination (a) versus agglutination (b) is determined by whether antibodies are present that can combine with antigens. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Blood compatibility Antibodies in the blood recipient’s plasma must not combine with the antigens on the surface of the blood donor’s RBCs, or else agglutination occurs Table 11.1 Transfusion. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition) - Type O blood is sometimes called universal donor because it has no antigens on the RBCs - Type AB blood is sometimes called the universal recipient because it has no antibodies in the plasma The designation of blood type usually also includes whether the person has or does not have the Rh factor protein antigen on the RBC  Hemolytic disease of the newborn If a mother is Rh- and the father is Rh+, the fetus could be Rh+ The baby’s Rh+ RBCs may leak across the placenta into the mother’s cardiovascular system This might occur because the placenta normally breaks down just before and at the time of birth The mother produces anti-Rh antibodies The anti-Rh antibodies cross the placenta and destroy the child’s RBCs This is called hemolytic disease of the newborn Hemolytic disease of the newborn is also called erythroblastosis fetalis  Hemolytic disease of the newborn Figure 11.10 Hemolytic disease of the newborn. Due to a pregnancy in which the child is Rh- positive, an Rh-negative mother may begin to produce antibodies against Rh-positive red blood cells. In a subsequent pregnancy these antibodies can cross the placenta and cause hemolysis of an Rh-positive child’s red blood cells. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition) The Rh problem is prevented by injecting Rho-Gam , which contains anti-Rh antibodies, to mother at 28 weeks of pregnancy, followed by a second injection not later than 72 hours after giving birth. The antibodies destroy the baby’s RBCs in the mother’s blood Concept check Hemolytic disease of the newborn can occur in which of the following situation? Mother Father Fetus A Rh+ Rh- Rh+ B Rh- Rh- Rh- C Rh- Rh+ Rh+ D Rh+ Rh- Rh- Blood Type Test Blood Type Test + A + B + AB O-  Which of the following is a safe transfusion? a) A+ to B+ Concept b) O+ to A - Check c) AB+ to B+ d) A- to AB- e) A+ to AB-  What antibodies could a person with blood type A- produce? a) Anti-A and Anti-Rh Concept b) Anti-B and Anti-Rh c) Anti-A and Anti-B Check d) Anti Rh only e) Anti-O and Anti B  A person who is AB+ marries someone who is O+, which of the following is a possible blood type for their children? a) AB+ Concept b) O+ c) B- Check d) O- e) All of the above are possible Matching question Mother Father Baby 1 AB- B- J AB+ 2 A+ B- K O+ 3 B+ B+ L B- 4 A- O- M O- Genetics Problem 1 A man with AB blood is married to a woman with AB blood. What blood types will their children be and in what proportion? Genetics Problem 2 Suppose two newborn babies were accidently mixed in the hospital and there was a question of which baby belonged to which parents. From the following blood types, determine which baby belongs to which parents: Baby 1: Type O Baby 2: Type A Mrs. James: Type B Mr. James: Type AB Mrs. Marshall: Type B Mr. Marshall: Type B  Type AB Type A Find everyone’s Genotype King Queen Type B Shrek Fiona Type A Type B Type O Fergus Fargle Felicia  Lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels and lymphatic organs has three main functions:  Fluid balance: takes up excess interstitial fluid and returns it to the bloodstream  Fat absorption: absorbs fats from the digestive tract and transports them to the bloodstream  Defense: Helps defend the body against disease  The lymphatic system Fig 13-1 The lymphatic system. (a) Lymphatic vessels drain excess fluid from the tissues and return it to the cardiovascular system. (b) The enlargement shows a lymphatic vessel. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Lymphatic vessels A one-way system that begins with lymphatic capillaries, which take up excess interstitial fluid and returns it to the bloodstream Lymphatic capillaries take up excess interstitial fluid (once inside lymphatic vessels, this fluid is called lymph) The lymphatic capillaries join to form lymphatic vessels The lymphatic vessels merge and enter one of two ducts: the thoracic duct or the right lymphatic duct The thoracic duct returns lymph collected from the body below the thorax and the left upper limb and left side of the head and neck into the left subclavian vein The right lymphatic duct returns lymph from the right upper limb and right side of the head and neck into the right subclavian vein  Lymphatic vessels Lymphatic capillaries are close-ended vessels consisting of a simple squamous epithelium, whose walls have large pores to allow particles to enter The construction of the larger lymphatic vessels is like that of cardiovascular veins  presence of valves  movement of lymph largely dependent upon skeletal pump Failure of the lymphatic system to properly collect and return excessive interstitial fluid to the bloodstream results in edema  Questions 1. If you wanted to describe the lymphatic system, which statements would you use? a. It takes up excess interstitial fluid and returns it to the circulation. b. It houses white blood cells. c. It absorbs dietary lipids. d. All these statements are correct. 2. Imagine that lymph is draining from your right arm to return to the heart. Starting with lymphatic capillaries, describe the pathway for lymph flow. 3. Large lymphatic vessels are similar in structure to … a. capillaries in the cardiovascular system. b. arteries in the cardiovascular system. c. veins in the cardiovascular system.  The lymphatic organs Primary lymphoid organs Primary lymphoid organs are Thymus where immune cells develop Red bone marrow Secondary lymphoid organs Secondary lymphoid organs Spleen are where immune response Lymph nodes is initiated Lymphatic nodules The five types of white blood cells Primary lymphoid organs – Red bone marrow Red bone marrow is the site of stem cells capable of producing blood cells In an adult, it is limited to the sternum, vertebrae, ribs, the skull, part of the pelvic girdle, and the proximal heads of the humerus and femur In a child, most bones have red bone marrow Fig 13-2 The five types of white blood cells. These cell types differ according to structure and function. The frequency of each type of cell is given as a percentage of the total found in circulating blood. (Mader’s Fig 13-2 Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Primary lymphoid organs – Thymus soft, bi-lobed gland located in the thoracic cavity between the trachea and the sternum superior to the heart site of T cell maturation  produces a group of thymic hormones, collectively called thymosins, which aid in the maturation of T lymphocytes The thymus is divided into lobules, which are filled with lymphocytes  The outer cortex is filled with immature lymphocytes, and the inner medulla contains mature lymphocytes largest in children and shrinks as we get older Fig 13-1c The thymus gland. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Secondary lymphoid organs – Spleen the largest lymphatic organ located in the upper left region of the abdominal cavity posterior to the stomach composed of red pulp and white pulp  Red pulp (populated by RBCs, macrophages, and some lymphocytes) is the site where old and defective RBCs are removed  White pulp (populated by lymphocytes and macrophages) is the site where immune response is generated Fig 13-1c The spleen. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Secondary lymphoid organs – Lymph node small, oval structures that occur along lymphatic vessels Tiny open channels called sinuses travel from the cortex inward toward the medulla As lymph courses through the sinuses, it is filtered by macrophages, which engulf pathogens and debris Connective tissue forms the capsule of a lymph node and divides the organ into compartments, which are packed with lymphocytes  Lymphocytes fight infections and attack cancer cells Fig 13-1c lymph node. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th edition)  Secondary lymphoid organs – Lymphatic nodules Lymphatic nodules are concentrations of lymphatic tissue not surrounded by a capsule Tonsils (Pharyngeal, lingual, and palatine)  the first to encounter pathogens that enter by way of the nose and mouth Peyer’s patches  located in the intestinal wall  help to defend against pathogens that enter by way of the intestinal tract Appendix  helps to defend against pathogens that enter by way of the intestinal tract Lymphoid follicles  within the lamina propria of the intestines and the mucous membranes lining the upper airways, bronchi, and genitourinary tract  Tonsils Pharyngeal tonsil  also referred to as adenoid  in the nasopharynx Lingual tonsils  at the base of the tongue Palatine tonsils  also referred to as tonsils  in the posterior oral cavity Fig 14-2 The path of air. Air flows through the nose and mouth, which are upper respiratory tract structures, to enter the pharynx. The pharynx opens into the trachea. The trachea is https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonsil#/media/File:Blausen part of the lower respiratory tract. (Mader’s Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10th _0859_Tonsils&Adenoids.png edition)  Questions 1. Which lymphatic organ functions as a blood reservoir and removes dead and dying red blood cells? a. Thymus b. Peyer’s patches c. Appendix d. Spleen 2. List and describe two functions of the thymus gland. 3. Which of the following structures has a connective tissue capsule? a. Lymph nodes b. Palatine tonsils c. Peyer’s patches d. Adenoid (pharyngeal tonsil) Answers Slide 20: b; Slide 21: c; Slide 22: c; Slide 31: c; Slide 34: d; Slide 35: b; Slide 36: c; Slide 37: 1(L); 2(J); 3(K); 4(M); Slide 38: 25% blood type A, 25% blood type B, 50% blood type AB; Slide 39: Baby 1 (Marshall) ; Baby 2 (James); Slide 40: Queen: AO; Fiona: AO; Shrek: BO; Fargle: OO; Felicia: BO; Fergus: AO Slide 45: 1. d 2. Lymphatic capillaries will drain to progressively larger lymphatic vessels, to the right lymphatic duct. This duct will drain to the right subclavian vein. The subclavian vein drains to the right brachiocephalic vein, which empties to the superior vena cava. 3. c Slide 53: 1. d 2. The thymus produces thymosins (thymic hormones) and is the site where T lymphocytes mature. 3. a