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## Section 2: The Enlightenment ### Before you read: **Main Idea:** European thinkers developed new ideas about government and society during the Enlightenment. **Reading Focus:** 1. How was the Enlightenment influenced by reason? 2. What new views did philosophers have about government? 3. Wha...

## Section 2: The Enlightenment ### Before you read: **Main Idea:** European thinkers developed new ideas about government and society during the Enlightenment. **Reading Focus:** 1. How was the Enlightenment influenced by reason? 2. What new views did philosophers have about government? 3. What new views did philosophers have about society? 4. How did Enlightenment ideas spread? **Key Terms and People:** * Enlightenment * Salons * Social contract * John Locke * Jean-Jacques Rousseau * Baron de Montesquieu * Philosophes * Voltaire * Enlightened despots **Taking Notes:** Take notes on the changes that the Enlightenment brought to society. ### A Philosopher in Prison * Engraving of Voltaire imprisoned in the Bastille, by François Bouchot, 1800s. * **The Inside Story:** Why was a French philosopher jailed for his writings? In the early 1700s François-Marie Arouet was the toast of Paris. His witty, satirical verses delighted Parisian aristocrats. But in 1717 he may have mocked the wrong man. The Duke of Orleans, who ruled France as regent until the young king Louis XV came of age, believed Arouet made fun of him. Outraged, the Duke of Orleans imprisoned Arouet in the Bastille prison for 11 months. * While in prison, Arouet began writing more serious works. He wrote his first play, called *Oedipe*, which would secure his reputation as the greatest French playwright of his time. He also completed an epic poem about Henry IV called *La Henriade*. But Arouet would be best known for his philosophical works, which he would write under the pen name Voltaire. * Voltaire began writing an epic poem in prison. ### The Age of Reason * The Scientific Revolution convinced many European thinkers about the power of reason. With the scientific method and reason, scientists had made countless discoveries about the physical world. Could reason be used to study human nature and society as well? * In the 1600s a new generation of philosophers began to view reason as the best way to understand truth. They came to the remarkable conclusion that reason could be used to solve all human problems. This exciting time of optimism and possibility is now called the *Enlightenment*, or the *Age of Reason*. * Ideas of the Enlightenment inspired educated people throughout Europe and beyond. People gathered in coffeehouses and public spaces to debate the new ideas. Many writers published their ideas in books, magazines, and inexpensive pamphlets to help spread their ideas among educated readers. They were all inspired by the exciting notion that the problems of the world could be solved by educated people. * By the time the Enlightenment reached its peak in the 1700s, Paris was a center of intellectual activity. Eager to promote the new ideas, many wealthy Parisian women began hosting social gatherings called *salons*. These women brought together philosophers, artists, scientists, and writers regularly to discuss their ideas. ### New Views On Government * As the Enlightenment began, European thinkers began looking for ways to apply reason in order to improve the human condition. Some of these thinkers began to examine the organization of government. #### **Thomas Hobbes:** * The English thinker Thomas Hobbes wrote about his views on government in his 1651 book, *Leviathan*. His experience of the violence and upheaval of the English civil war persuaded him that people were selfish and greedy. In the natural state, he wrote, people would lead lives that were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." * Hobbes believed that people needed governments to impose order. He argued that people in a society should agree to give up some freedoms to a strong leader in exchange for the peace, safety, and order that government could provide. Hobbes called this exchange between society and government the *social contract*. He believed that absolute monarchy was the best form of government because an absolute monarchy had the power of a leviathan, a massive sea monster. That strong, centralized power could be used to impose law and order. #### **John Locke:** * Another English philosopher, John Locke, believed that people were naturally happy, tolerant, and reasonable. He argued that all people were born equal with the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. * Locke stated that the purpose of government was to protect people's natural rights. He believed that monarchs were not chosen by God. Instead, the people consented to the government, whose power was limited by laws. In *Two Treatises on Government*, Locke described the importance of the fairness of law. * "Those who are united into one body, and have a common established law and judicature [court system] to appeal to, with authority to decide controversies between them, and punish offenders, are in civil society one with another..." -John Locke, *Two Treatises on Government*, 1690 * Locke believed that if a government failed to protect its citizens' natural rights, they had the right to overthrow it. Locke's belief in government by consent became a foundation for modern democracy. His ideas inspired later revolutionaries in Europe and the Americas. #### **Jean-Jacques Rousseau:** * The French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that people were basically born good. * **Primary Sources** * **Rousseau's Social Contract:** Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that the social contract was not just between the governors and the governed but between all members of society. * "What then is government? It is an intermediary body established between the subjects and the sovereign [king] to keep them in touch with each other... The government's power Is only the public power vested in it.... when the [government] has a particular will of its own stronger than that of the sovereign... at that moment the social union will disappear and the body politic will be dissolved." -Jean-Jacques Rousseau, *The Social Contract*, 1763 * **Skills Focus Reading Like a Historian:** 1. Define What did Rousseau mean by "an intermediary body" in the first line of this excerpt? 2. Analyzing Primary Sources What would happen if government carried out its own wishes in opposition to those of the people? ### Two Views On Society * **Counterpoints:** * After living through the English civil war, Thomas Hobbes became convinced that society needed a strong central authority to control and contain the natural barbarism of humans. * "In [a state of nature], there is . . . no Knowledge of the face of the Earth; no account of Time; no Arts; no Letters; no Society; and which is worst of all, continuall feare, and danger of violent death; And the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." -Thomas Hobbes, *Leviathan*, 1651 * John Locke believed that under ideal conditions, people lived according to a law of nature. Because people could interpret the law differently, they needed an authority to enforce it. * "The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it . . . no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions: ... Every one... may not... take away, or impair the life, the liberty, health, limb, or goods of another." -John Locke, *Two Treatises on Government*, 1690 * **Skills Focus Reading Like a Historian:** Contrast How do Hobbes's and Locke's views of human nature differ? * **Academic Vocabulary:** Rational Having reason or understanding. * Rousseau also believed that society corrupted people. In *The Social Contract*, he wrote, “Man is born fee but everywhere is in chains." * Rousseau believed that government should work for the benefit of the common good, not for the wealthy few. He argued that individuals should give up some of their freedoms for the benefit of the community as a whole. * Rousseau despised inequality in society. He believed that all people were equal and should be recognized as equal in society. His view would inspire revolutionaries in years to come. #### Baron de Montesquieu: * Another French thinker, Baron de Montesquieu argued that the best form of government included a separation of powers. Dividing power among branches of government, he believed, would prevent any individual or group from abusing its power. * In 1748 Montesquieu published *The Spirit of the Laws*. In this book he wrote about his admiration for Great Britain's government, because its powers were divided into branches. Parliament (the legislative branch) made the laws. The king and his advisers (the executive branch) carried out the laws. The court system (the judicial branch) interpreted the laws. * In truth, Montesquieu had misunderstood the structures of the British government. His misunderstanding, however, led him to a rational conclusion. The separation of powers allowed each branch of government to serve as a check against the power of the others-a concept known as the system of checks and balances. This concept would become an important part of the structure of later democratic governments, especially that of the United States. * **Reading Check Make Inferences:** Why was the subject of government so important to Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu? ### New Views On Society * While some Enlightenment philosophers focused their attention on government, others chose to deal with issues in society, such as religious toleration, women's rights, and economic systems. #### Voltaire: * One of the most outspoken French philosophers, or *philosophes*, was François-Marie Arouet, who wrote under the name Voltaire. With biting wit, Voltaire attacked injustice wherever he saw it-among the nobility, in the government, and in the church. His sharp wit created enemies, however, and Voltaire was imprisoned twice. He was later exiled to England for two years. * Voltaire used his pen to defend every principle that he held dear and to fight superstition and ignorance. Despite making enemies, Voltaire continued the struggle for justice, religious toleration, and liberty during his entire life. #### Diderot and the Encyclopedia: * By the mid-1700s the great expansion of human knowledge convinced French philosophe Denis Diderot to compile it all into a single work, *the Encyclopedia*. This extensive 28-volume work explained new ideas about art, science, government, and religion. Its purpose was the promotion of knowledge. * Diderot worked on *the Encyclopedia* for 27 years, publishing the last volume in 1772. French leaders attacked *the Encyclopedia* because it criticized the church, the government, and the legal system. The government tried to stop publication in 1759, and Diderot completed the remaining volumes in secret. *The Encyclopedia* was an immediate success, and it helped spread Enlightenment ideas across Europe and to North America. #### Mary Wollstonecraft: * Although Enlightenment thinkers questioned many established beliefs, they usually held traditional views about women. Many believed that women's proper roles were as wives and mothers, and that women should receive only enough education to prepare them for those roles. * The English writer Mary Wollstonecraft rejected that view. Wollstonecraft demanded equal rights for women, especially in education-a radical view at the time. In her 1792 book, *A Vindication of the Rights of Woman*, she argued that if men and women had equal education, they would be equal in society. #### Adam Smith: * Some thinkers, such as Scottish economist Adam Smith, used reason to analyze economic systems. In his 1776 book, The *Wealth of Nations*, Smith argued that business activities should take place in a free market. Smith was a strong believer in *laissez-faire* (les-ay FAYR) economics, an economic system that worked without government regulation. In French, laissez-faire means "leave alone”. * Smith believed that the economy would be stronger if the market forces of supply and demand were allowed to work freely. * **Reading Check Summarize:** How did philosophers apply reason to issues in society? #### Reading Like a Historian: Voltaire's Candide * **Interpreting Literature as a Source:** Works of fiction can be very revealing about the times in which they were written. Through the actions and words of the characters, the writer may include information about how people lived, worked, and interacted with each other. * The main character in *Candide* is a young man named Candide who is on a journey around the world in search of enlightenment and wisdom. In the excerpt below, Voltaire describes Candide's view of the aftermath of an earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal. When analyzing a work of fiction, think about * the details in the literature and known facts * the author's point of view * **An auto-da-fe** was a ritual of penance for condemned heretics, who were usually executed afterward. * After the earthquake, which had destroyed three-fourths of the city of Lisbon, the sages [wise men] of that country could think of no means more effectual to preserve the kingdom from utter ruin than to entertain the people with an auto-da-fe, it having been decided by the University of Coimbra, that the burning of a few people alive by a slow fire, and with great ceremony, is an infallible preventive of earthquakes -Voltaire, *Candide*, 1759 * **Universities** were controlled by the church and existed primarily to prepare students for church careers. * **Skills Focus Reading Like a Historian:** 1. Details What action did Portuguese leaders believe would save the country from further devastation? 2. Author's Point of View How does the phrase "entertain the people with an auto-da-fe" reveal Voltaire's disdain for Portuguese leaders? ### Enlightenment Society: * In the late 1700s, Madame Geoffrin hosted some of the most popular salons and frequently invited Voltaire, Diderot, and Montesquieu. * An actor entertains the salon's guests by reading Voltaire's play *The Orphan of China*. * Salons were intellectually stimulating social gatherings held in the homes of wealthy Parisian women. Philosophers, writers, artists, and scientists gathered there to share their ideas. How do you think salons helped women gain more rights in Enlightenment society? ### Enlightenment Ideas Spread * The spirit of optimism and change was not confined to the salons and the coffeehouses of Europe. Enlightenment ideas quickly spread throughout Europe to Prussia, Russia, Austria, and beyond. Many philosophes appealed directly to European monarchs for change. As a result, a few monarchs developed a system of government in which they ruled according to Enlightenment ideas. These monarchs became known as *enlightened despots*. #### Prussia: * Frederick II, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, believed that his duty was to rule with absolute power in order to build Prussia's strength. But he was also strongly influenced by the ideas of Voltaire. While Frederick was building Prussia a military power in Europe, he also introduced a number of reforms. * Frederick ambitiously tried to establish a system of elementary education for all Prussian children. He abolished torture and supported most forms of religious tolerance. Frederick also reduced censorship. * Frederick's reforms were limited, however. For example, he did not extend religious tolerance to Jews; he tried to limit the number of Jews that could live in Prussia. Frederick also opposed serfdom, but he did not abolish it because he needed the support of the aristocracy. Like other enlightened despots, Frederick did not make reforms simply to achieve justice. He did so to build Prussia's strength and make his own rule more powerful. #### Russia: * When Catherine II became the ruler of Russia in 1762, she dreamed of establishing order and justice in Russia while supporting education and culture. Catherine not only read the works of the philosophes also corresponded with both Voltaire and Diderot. * Inspired by the philosophes, Catherine set about reforming Russia. She drafted a Russian constitution and a code of laws, but they were considered far too liberal and were never put into practice. Before Catherine came to power, she intended to free the serfs but quickly realized that she would lose the support of wealthy landowners if she did. Catherine had no intentions of giving up power and she became a tyrant. During her reign she actually imposed serfdom on more Russians than ever before. #### Austria: * The most radical enlightened despot was Joseph II, the son of Maria Theresa of Austria. When he became emperor in 1780, Joseph embarked upon an ambitious reform program. He eliminated torture and the death penalty and provided free food and medicine for poor citizens. As a Catholic emperor, he granted religious tolerance to Protestants and Jews. His most significant reform was abolishing serfdom and requiring that laborers be paid for their work. * These dramatic changes were resisted by the nobility and the church. They forced Joseph to revoke some of his reforms shortly before his death in 1790. ### Later Times and Places * During the Enlightenment, writers and philosophers questioned ideas that had been long held as absolute truths. They challenged beliefs in absolute monarchy, questioned the relationship between the church and state, and debated the roles and rights of people in society. Enlightenment philosophers promoted ideas that reformers and revolutionaries would later use to change society. * The Enlightenment belief in progress would spur many generations to enact reforms. People began to believe that human reason could solve any problem. Instead of accepting poverty, ignorance, and inequality as part of the human condition, people debated new ways of making society more just. * Enlightenment ideas about power and authority would inspire not only reforms but revolutions. For example, leaders in Great Britain's American colonies would use those ideas as inspiration to break free from the British monarchy. Strongly influenced by the political views of Locke and Rousseau, the colonists began to experience a new sense of national identity. * **Reading Check Draw Conclusions:** How successful were the reforms of the enlightened despots? ### Key Enlightenment Ideas * **Quick Facts:** * The ability to reason is what makes humans unique. * Reason can be used to solve problems and improve people's lives. * Reason can free people from ignorance, superstition, and unfair government. * The natural world is governed by laws that be discovered through reason. * Like the natural world, human behavior is governed by natural laws. * Governments should reflect natural laws and encourage education and debate. ### Assessment **Section 2 Assessment** 1. a. **Define:** What was the Enlightenment? > (go.hrw.com Online Quiz Keyword: SHP ENL HP) b. **Explain:** Why did philosophers believe reason was important? c. **Elaborate:** Why would salons be an effective way to spread Enlightenment ideas? 2. a. **Identify:** Who wrote *Leviathan*? b. **Analyze:** How did Hobbes and Locke differ in their ideas about government? 3. a. **Recall:** Who were the philosophes? b. **Explain:** What radical idea did Mary Wollstonecraft support? c. **Predict:** Why might Adam Smith's economic ideas appeal to business owners? 4. a. **Identify:** What was an enlightened despot? b. **Draw Conclusions:** How were Frederick II's reforms limited? c. **Evaluate:** What do you think is the most significant legacy of the Enlightenment? **Critical Thinking:** 5. **Analyze:** Use a concept map like this one below and your notes from this section to describe how Enlightenment ideas affected government. **Focus On Speaking:** 6. **Persuasion:** Suppose you are a philosophe who would like your monarch to make reforms based on Enlightenment ideas. Prepare a speech in which you try to convince Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, or Joseph II to support your ideas. Be sure to include reasons why you believe it would be in the monarch's best interests to make your reforms.