Consciousness: Topic 1 PDF

CONSCIOUSNESS: TOPIC 1 Encounters Around 20% of college students believe aliens communicate with us through dreams. 10% of people claim to have met or experienced an alien. Some individuals report alien abductions, raising questions about the intersection of sleep, perception, and...

CONSCIOUSNESS: TOPIC 1 Encounters Around 20% of college students believe aliens communicate with us through dreams. 10% of people claim to have met or experienced an alien. Some individuals report alien abductions, raising questions about the intersection of sleep, perception, and culture. Sleep Paralysis Occurs during transitions in or out of REM sleep, where individuals feel awake but cannot move. Common features include anxiety, terror, and a sense of a menacing presence. The experience may be compounded by cultural influences, as hallucinations can vary by culture, such as feelings of an intruder or chest pressure. Intruder/Vestibular-Motor/Chest pressure hallucinations What is Consciousness? Consciousness is our subjective experience of the world, our bodies, and our mental states (waking consciousness). Altered states of consciousness include sleep paralysis, locked-in syndrome, out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences, mystical states, hypnosis, meditation, and states induced by psychoactive drugs. What is Sleep? Sleep is characterized by low physical activity and reduced awareness. Associated with the secretion of hormones like melatonin, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and growth hormone. Stages of Sleep Sleep follows a 90-minute cycle consisting of 5 stages: ○ Stages 1-4 (NREM): No eye movements, fewer dreams. ○ Stage 5 (REM): Rapid eye movement and vivid dreams.  Sleep stages: overview ○ Light sleep Heart rate decrease Body temp drops Electric brain wave activity slows ○ Deep sleep Brain erupts with powerful brain waves Body is recharged Immune & cardiovascular benefits Memory consolidation Stage 1: Transition phase ○ Transition from wakefulness and sleep ○ Lasts only a few minutes ○ Brain waves slow down ○ Dreams are like photos Stage 2: Falling asleep ○ Further slowing of brain waves ○ Sleep spindles and K-complexes ○ As much as 65% of total sleep Stages 3 and 4: Deep sleep ○ Delta waves (brain waves that are associated with deep sleep and are characterized by their low frequency and high amplitude) ○ 1st stage of deep sleep ○ Crucial to feel rested ○ Growth hormone production ○ Children spend more time in NREM3/4 than elderly ○ Suppressed by alcohol Stage 5: REM sleep ○ Rapid eye movement sleep ○ Brain waves similar to wakefulness ○ Atonia refers to the temporary paralysis of skeletal muscles that occurs during REM sleep. ○ Eye & inner ear movements  ○ REM rebound (a natural response to sleep deprivation, stress, or suppressed REM sleep) ○ Probably essential Hypnagogic State (pre-sleep consciousness) The state of consciousness right before falling asleep. This includes hypnagogic imagery (visual, somatic, auditory) and myoclonic jerks. Why Do We Sleep? Adaptive function: Sleep restores resources and reduces predatory risks, though we remain vulnerable during sleep. Restorative function: Essential for memory consolidation (the process of stabilizing and strengthening new memories so they can become long-term memories), learning, and cognitive function. Sleep is essential for growth: Vital for brain development. Sleep needs People sleep approx. 7-8 hours a night. There is a wide variety in the specific needs of sleep for certain individuals. These sleep requirements vary over a lifetime and the more we age the less we sleep Effects of sleep deprivation Sleep Deprivation and Mental Health  Sleep-deprived people feel increased stress Tendency to overreact emotionally Lack of emotional regulation – has a biological basis React to neutral images as if they were emotional (amygdala activation, not connecting to frontal cortex) Case Study: Peter Tripp (an extreme case of sleep deprivation) Peter Tripp broadcasted a "wakeathon" for 200 hours, demonstrating the severe effects of sleep deprivation, such as slurred speech, hallucinations, paranoia, and eventual personality changes. Sleep Deprivation Among Post-secondary Students A growing issue, with sleep hygiene practices recommended, such as maintaining a regular sleep-wake schedule, avoiding caffeine, and ensuring a quiet sleep environment. Circadian Rhythm The Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) SCN: brain’s clock mechanism. Sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina, allowing it to synchronize with the outside world. Melatonin and Sleep regulation  Sleep-wake cycle is also regulated by other factors Melatonin release is stimulated by darkness, inhibited by daylight Makes us sleepy Released by the pineal gland Disruptions of normal sleep Jet lag – symptoms resulting from mismatch b/w our internal circadian cycles and our environment (fatigue, sluggishness, irritability) Rotating shift work – work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily/weekly basis ○ Difficult to maintain normal circadian rhythm ○ Exhaustion, agitation, sleep problems, depression & anxiety Bright light can be used to re - align biological clocks with the external environment! Shift work ages the brain, dulls intellect Shift work ages the brain by more than 6 years Substantial decline in brain function associated with shift work Lower score for memory, speed of processing information and overall brain power Reversible! ~ 5 years to recover Dreaming: Theories of why we dream: According to Freud: ○ Dreams are unconscious wish fulfillments with manifest and latent content. ○ Manifest Content: The dream's storyline (what you remember). ○ Latent Content: The hidden, true meaning behind the dream (your unconscious desires). Not all dreams are pleasant. Bad dreams might reflect unresolved fears or conflicts. only about 10% of dreams involve sexual content. According to evolution - Dreams-for-survival theory: ○ Many dreams are stressful! ○ Dreams represent concerns about our daily life, consistent with everyday living ○ Information that is critical for our daily survival is reconsidered and reprocessed – so we can process information 24/7 ○ Kurdish vs. Finnish children study – Kurdish children had more intense & frequent threatening dream events  According to neuroscience - Activation-Synthesis Theory: ○ Dreams are a way to make sense of random brain activity while sleeping ○ Scenario isn’t random – clue to dreamer’s fears, emotions, concerns ○ Motivational & emotional centers (e.g., limbic system) active during REM – less activation of prefrontal cortex Sleep Disorders Insomnia: ○ Difficulty falling or staying asleep for at least 3 nights a week, for at least 1 month 9-20% of people experience insomnia Higher likelihood of insomnia amongst students (~25%): ○ ADHD (3.48 times higher risk) ○ Depression ○ Employment Treatment: psychotherapy and/or hypnotic (e.g., Lunesta, Ambien) Paradoxical Insomnia: ○ Sleep-state misperception ○ Sleep disorder where people believe they are sleep deprived despite having a normal sleep cycle ○ Experience distress, anxiety & fatigue ○ Cause is unclear – brain activity indicative of arousal during sleep ○ Irrational beliefs & excessive worry Night Terrors: ○ Sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, sweating and confusion – followed by return to deep sleep ○ Most common in children (3-8), harmless Sleep Apnea: ○ Blockage of the airway during sleep like SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome) Narcolepsy: ○ Rapid and unexpected onset of sleep ○ Directly into REM sleep ○ Cataplexy (a sudden loss of muscle control that occurs while a person is fully conscious) ○ Affects humans and animals  ○ Associated with lack of orexin (a neuropeptide that regulates sleep-wake cycles, arousal, and appetite) REM Behavior Disorder: ○ Not paralyzed during REM sleep and can act out dreams Somnambulism (Sleepwalking): ○ Walking while fully asleep ○ Vague consciousness of world around them ○ Happens in stage 3 of sleep ○ Perfectly safe to wake! Sleep deprivation and technology National sleep foundation poll (2014): ○ Children with mobile device in room: 7.4 hours sleep per night ○ Children without mobile device in room: 8.3 hours How is technology related to sleep loss? ○ 1) person awakens intermittently - Notifs or sounds from devices can wake you ○ 2) light exposure - the blue light from screens can interfere with melatonin production, making it harder to fall asleep. Psychoactive Drugs and Their Impact on Consciousness Substances that contain chemicals similar to those found naturally in brain that alter biochemistry (neurotransmission) Influence emotions, perceptions, behaviours – can create dependence Caffeine (stimulant), nicotine (stimulant), alcohol (depressant) & THC (stim & dep) Affect the nervous system in different ways ○ Some alter limbic system ○ Some alter neurotransmission Recap agonist, antagonist, reuptake Addiction and Dependence Biologically based addiction ○ Body becomes so accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug it cannot function in its absence Psychologically based addiction ○ People believe they need the drug to respond to the stresses of daily living  Tolerance means more needed to achieve effect Physical dependence is related to withdrawal whereas psychological dependence is related to cravings Stimulants Drugs that have an arousal effect on CNS (central nervous system) – rise in blood pressure, heart rate, and muscular tension Caffeine: Caffeine can increase attentiveness, decrease reaction time, and improve mood by blocking adenosine receptors: Caffeine is an adenosine receptor antagonist Nicotine: activates neural mechanisms similar to cocaine ○ Enhances norepinephrine & acetylcholine, promotes dopamine activates SNS (sympathetic nervous system) Amphetamines: strong stimulants like Dexedrine & Benzedrine (speed) ○ Small doses – sense of energy, talkativeness, heightened confidence, increase concentration, reduced fatigue, mood ”high” ○ Prolonged use – paranoia, reduction in sexual desire –Large doses can result in death Amphetamines & ADHD E.g., Adderall, Vyvanse ○ ADHD associated with lower levels of dopamine, seek stimulation Drugs like Adderall increase levels of dopamine, serotonin, & norepinephrine No ADHD —> a euphoria, increased wakefulness, better ability to cope with stress Cocaine Small doses produce feelings of profound psychological well being, awake and energetic, increased confidence, less hunger/sleepy Larger doses: anger, violence, irritability, etc. Fidgeting (dopamine) “Highs” due to dopamine (blocks reabsorption) – floods the brain Depressants Downers” ○ Slow down CNS – neurons fire more slowly ○ Typically increases GABA activity -which is a calming chemical in the brain. This makes you feel relaxed or sleepy. Small doses: temporary feelings of intoxication along with euphoria & joy  Large doses: speech becomes slurred, muscle control becomes disjointed, making motion difficult ○ Heavy users may lose consciousness entirely Alcohol Most commonly used depressant ○ Stimulating at low doses (via dopamine), euphoric, depressant effects kick in with higher doses Lowers inhibition, a “social lubricant”, impairs judgment Magnifies emotions Females experience effects more heavily (same weight, higher blood alcohol concentration) Balanced-placebo design What we expect to happen plays a role in social behaviour seperates physiological effects from influence of expectation Placebo drinker's behaviour similar to alcohol drinkers Expectations more important than physiological, and influences social behaviours (e.g., aggression) Depressants Barbiturates are prescribed to induce sleep or reduce stress (produce sense of relaxation) ○ Psychologically & physically addictive ○ With alcohol:relaxes muscles of the diaphragm to such an extent that user stops breathing (deadly) Benzodiazepines prescribed to treat anxiety & panic ○ Highly addictive ○ Excessive use can lead to tolerance (also memory impairment) ○ Deadly with alcohol Quaaludes Methaqualone (brand name Quaaludes) CNS depressant – sedative & hypnotic (increases GABA) Popular in 1970s – taken so commonly as a recreational drug that it has been banned for 30 years Bill Cosby - used to drug females to then sexually assault them Narcotics Drugs that increase relaxation & relieve pain and anxiety Highly addictive E.g., heroine & morphine – derived from poppy seed pods Medical to abuse pipeline Opioids: poppy-seed derivatives Morphine, heroin, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, fentanyl ○ CNS depressant – drowsiness, drift in & out of consciousness (nod off), binds to opioid receptors – dopamine agonist ○ Euphoria & relaxation, blur boundaries between wakefulness & dream-like consciousness ○ Reduced pain awareness (blocks pain messages) ○ Depress respiration occurs when breathing is too shallow or slow, resulting in a buildup of carbon dioxide in the blood ○ decreased opioid receptor sensitivity and a reduced number of opioid receptors contribute to opioid tolerance Hallucinogens (psychedelics) Capable of producing hallucinations or changes in perception LSD, psilocybin, ayahuasca, marijuana, ecstasy, salvia (was legal until 2016!) Interest in therapeutic value ○ Mystical experiences ○ Treatment-resistant challenges MDMA & LSD MDMA & lysergic acid diethylamine (LSD, acid) – work primarily on serotonin, alter perception ○ Ecstasy: users report peacefulness & calm, increased empathy & connection, relaxed but energetic LSD produces vivid hallucinations (can be wondrous or terrifying) ○ Alteration in sensory perception & distortions in time Marijuana -THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) Effects are a mix of excitatory, depressive, and mildly hallucinatory  Trigger spontaneous, unrelated ideas, distorted perceptions of time & place, increased sensitivity to sounds, tastes, and colours – erratic verbal behaviour Memory impairment, “spaced out” ○ Cannabinoid receptors abundant in hippocampus – impairs memory consolidation Marijuana Prolonged cannabis use: ○ Impaired cognitive function (reversible) ○ Reduced dopaminergic function Cannabis-induced psychosis ○ Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, paranoia (like schizophrenia) ○ Risks: high THC content, frequency of use, age of first use, family history of mental health ○ Not well understood but linked to dopamine release ○ Can last a few hours to long-term (cannabis-induced psychotic disorder) LEARNING: TOPIC 2 Unlearned Behaviours: Instincts & Reflexes: Instincts and reflexes are natural, unlearned behaviors. Reflexes: Automatic, involuntary responses to specific stimuli. ○ Protective & essential for survival. ○ Involve primitive parts of the CNS (e.g., brainstem). ○ Examples: Pupillary light reflex, startle reflex, withdrawal reflex, scratch reflex. Instincts are natural, inborn tendencies that drive an organism to behave in specific ways. They are more complex than reflexes and often involve coordinated actions of the entire body. For example: Sexual activity: A behavior driven by reproductive instincts. Migration: Seen in animals like birds, instinctively moving to survive seasonal changes. Instincts rely on higher brain centers, meaning they involve more complex processing in the brain compared to simple reflexes. What is Learning?  Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. ○ Involves acquiring skills/knowledge through experience. ○ Involves conscious & unconscious processes. Habituation and Sensitization are basic forms of non-associative learning: Habituation: Getting used to a stimulus and reacting less to it over time (e.g., tuning out background noise). Sensitization: Increasing response to a repeated stimulus (e.g., becoming more annoyed by a dripping faucet). These processes are opposites: habituation filters out irrelevant stimuli, while sensitization amplifies responses to important ones. Classical Conditioning: Learning happens by associating two stimuli (e.g., a bell and food) to create an automatic response (e.g., salivating to the bell). Focus: Involuntary behaviors (like reflexes or emotions). Operant Conditioning: Learning happens through rewards and punishments to increase or decrease a behavior (e.g., giving a treat for sitting). Focus: Voluntary behaviors (like actions or choices). Classical Conditioning The process by which we learn to associate stimuli & consequently anticipate events. Pavlov’s Research: ○ Studied digestive systems in dogs, leading to the discovery of classical conditioning (CC). Types of Responses to Environment: Unconditioned (unlearned). Conditioned (learned). Components of Classical Conditioning Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus that initially doesn’t obtain a specific response.  Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Stimulus that naturally triggers a response (becomes CS after acquisition). ○ Ex. Food makes you salivate automatically. Food is the UCS. Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural, automatic reaction to the UCS (becomes CR after learning). ○ ex. Salivating when you see or smell food. The salivation is the UCR. Classical Conditioning Process 1. Dog salivates (UCR) in response to food (UCS). 2. Dog does not salivate in response to the bell (NS). 3. The bell (NS) and food (UCS) are paired. 4. The bell (CS) causes salivation (CR). Acquisition, Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery Aquisition: It's when you learn something new or start to connect one thing with another, like a dog learning that a bell means food is coming. Extinction: Conditioned response decreases & eventually disappears. Spontaneous Recovery: Conditioned response reappears. Renewal Effect: Response reappears when brought back to the original environment. Applications of Classical Conditioning 1. Marketing: Pair products with appealing stimuli. ○ Example: Gorn (1982): UCS (music) → UCR (pleasure response). 2. Little Albert Study: ○ Conducted by John B. Watson. ○ Conditioned fear response in a child (e.g., fear of white rats). Stimulus Generalization When you react the same way to things that are similar.  Example: If you're scared of one dog, you might become scared of all dogs, even if they’re different breeds. Stimulus Discrimination When you learn to react differently to similar things. Example: You recognize that a fire alarm means danger, but your phone alarm just means it’s time to wake up Classical Conditioning in Other Phenomena Fetishes: A fetish is when someone develops a sexual attraction to nonliving objects Arousal (UCR) happens naturally when exposed to something sexually stimulating (UCS), like images of naked people. If this arousal gets paired with a neutral object (like boots), the object becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and can cause arousal on its own. Examples of Research: 1970s study: Male participants viewed pictures of naked women (UCS) and boots (NS). Over time, boots(CS) alone caused arousal (CR). ○ Stimulus Generalization: This response extended to similar objects, like sandals or high heels. 2006 study on quails: Researchers paired cylindrical objects with mating opportunities. Quails became sexually aroused by the objects alone! Conditioned Taste Aversion (A strong dislike) ○ You avoid food after getting sick from it, even if the sickness happens hours later. ○ It only takes one bad experience to form the aversion. ○ The aversion is specific to that food (not other things around you). ○ We’re biologically wired to make these connections for survival. ○ Example: Chemotherapy patients use "scapegoat food" to avoid disliking their usual meals. Scapegoat food is the idea that the patient will be more likely to eat the foods in their regular diet after treatment if they have a positive experience with a different food before treatment. Operant Conditioning  Organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequences (reinforcement or punishment). Positive: add something Negative: take something away Reinforcement: increase a behavior Punishment: decrease a behavior Law of Effect (Thorndike, American Psychologist)): Rewards make behaviors more likely to occur. Punishments make behaviors less likely to occur. Reinforcement vs. Punishment Positive Reinforcement: Adding something to increase a behavior (e.g., paychecks, praise). Negative Reinforcement: Removing something to increase a behavior (e.g., stopping a beeping sound by wearing a seatbelt). Positive Punishment: Adding something to decrease a behavior (e.g., scolding for talking in class). Negative Punishment: Removing something to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking away a toy for misbehaving). Does Punishment Work? ○ Tells us what NOT to do. ○ Creates anxiety that interferes with learning. ○ May encourage subversive behavior. (ppl get sneakier) ○ Models aggressive behavior for children. Biological Influences on Learning Evolutionary predispositions (e.g., fear of snakes/spiders vs. cars/guns). Biology restricts what behaviors can be learned through reinforcement. For example, some animals can't learn unnatural actions easily.  Instinctive Drift: Animals tend to revert to their natural, instinctive behaviors, even after being trained through reinforcement. ○ Example: A raccoon trained to drop coins into a slot might start rubbing the coins together instead, mimicking how it naturally handles food. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement: Behaviour reinforced every time; leads to faster learning but faster extinction. Partial Reinforcement: Behaviour occasionally reinforced; leads to slower extinction and better maintenance. Partial reinforcement & IPV Operant learning principles may contribute to stay-leave decisions Relationship partners provide intermittent reinforcement to significant others (e.g., occasionally buying flowers after episodes of abuse) Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules: 1. Fixed Interval: Predictable time intervals (e.g., taking medication at set times). 2. Variable Interval: Unpredictable time intervals (e.g., checking social media). 3. Fixed Ratio: Predictable number of responses (e.g., worker gets paid after assembling 10 products). 4. Variable Ratio: Unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling). Superstitious Behavior in Operant Conditioning: Definition: Superstitious behaviors arise when an organism mistakenly associates a random action with a reward, even when there's no actual connection. Example: A pigeon might spin in circles before getting food because it thinks the spinning caused the food to appear. Human Example: Wearing "lucky socks" before a test, believing they will influence success. Cognitive Approaches to Learning  Latent Learning: when someone learns something but doesn’t demonstrate it until there’s a reason to use it. It’s “hidden” learning that becomes noticeable only when there’s a situation to apply it. (e.g., Tolman’s rats developing cognitive maps). Observational Learning: Learning by watching others. ○ Steps: Pay attention, remember behavior, reproduce action, and be motivated. ○ Examples: Bandura’s Bobo doll study, "fearless peer" learning. Media Violence & Real-World Aggression By Grade 8, the average child has seen: 8,000 murders and 800,000 violent acts on TV. ¼ of violent offenders incarcerated in FL had tried to commit media-inspired copycat crimes Players of violent video games are more likely to be involved in delinquent behavior and aggression – also lower academic achievement Violent media can: 1. Lower inhibitions. 2. Distort understanding (seeing non-aggressive acts as aggressive). 3. Desensitize viewers to violence. MEMORY: TOPIC 3 Human Memory “Many people believe that memory works like a recording device. Memory works a little bit more like a Wikipedia page: You can go in there and change it but so can other people” -Beth Loftus Memory Memory is the process by which we encode, store and retrieve information Not static, can change over time Sometimes we “fill in the gaps” Generally adaptive and sometimes correct, but it makes us prone to error Brains go above and beyond available information to make sense of the world Foundations of memory Three-stage model of memory 3 different types of memory, differ in span and duration Information must travel through all stages in order to be remembered SENSORY → STM → LTM SENSORY MEMORY Storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. Each sense has its own sensory memory – very brief Iconic memory holds visual info for < 1 second, a quick snapshot of what you just saw. Echoic memory holds sounds for 2-3 seconds, like replaying something you just heard. Snapshot that stores sensory info Unless it is transferred to other types of memory, it is lost High precision! Short-term memory Limited capacity memory system where information is retained for only as long as 30 seconds (unless you try to retain it longer, via rehearsal!) Capacity is 7 +- 2 (magic number 7) STMs are either discarded or stored in LTM Extending our STM capacity Can extend our STM span by chunking (organizing large body of info into smaller, meaningful groups) Rehearsal: transferring from STM -> LTM Rehearsal (repeating information) is the repetition of info that has entered STM leads to memory consolidation Maintenance rehearsal Repeating the stimuli in the same form Elaborative rehearsal Information is considered & organized! Link stimuli to each other in a meaningful way Usually more effective – much more likely to be transferred UNDERSTAND not memorize Working memory Working memory is like a mental whiteboard. It temporarily holds and actively works with information, like when you're solving a problem or making a decision. It has a "central executive" that acts like a manager, deciding what to focus on and how to use the information. It’s where you do all your mental thinking and organizing! Long-term memory Continuous storage of information It may last decades OR a lifetime It has no limit and is like the information you store on the hard drive of a computer Anterograde and retrograde amnesia show that STM is separate from LTM Retrograde amnesia is when you can't recall memories from your past. Anterograde amnesia is when you can't form new memories but can still remember things from before you developed this amnesia. Primacy effect: ability to remember stimuli presented first (e.g., ball, shoe) Recency effect: the ability to remember stimuli presented recently (e.g., hat, vase) Stimuli that are odd or unique (i.e., xylophone) – independent of their position on the list Case Study: Henry Molaison (HM) Surgery: HM had his hippocampus removed to treat severe seizures. Memory Loss: ○ He couldn’t form new explicit memories (anterograde amnesia). ○ Also had retrograde amnesia, forgetting events from about 11 years before surgery Researcher: Brenda Milner (a neuroscientist) studied HM's memory abilities. Mirror Tracing Task: ○ HM practiced a task where he traced a shape using its reflection in a mirror. ○ Didn’t remember task BUT improved over time Key Finding: ○ HM could learn new skills (like mirror tracing) even though he couldn’t form new explicit memories. ○ This showed a distinction between: Explicit memory: Facts and events (needs the hippocampus). Implicit memory: Skills and habits (doesn’t rely on the hippocampus). LTM: Declarative memory Explicit memory: conscious recollection of information, such as facts & events (remembering on purpose) Semantic: general knowledge ○ Knowing who the prime minister is Episodic: recollection of events in our lives ○ The Christmas you finally got a iPod ○ Your first kiss ○ Your first day of university LTM: Non-declarative memory Implicit memory: memory in which behavior is affected by a prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience - riding a bike or tying your shoes - (remembering without trying, automatic) Procedural memory: memory for how to do things (e.g., tie your shoes) Priming: activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember/identify new information faster Neuroscience of Memory Karl Lashley found that memories aren’t stored in one spot but memory traces (engrams) are distributed across different parts of the brain. Hippocampus: plays a role in memory consolidation (helps in initial encoding) Damage leads to the inability to process new declarative memories Amygdala: heavily involved with memories involving emotion (e.g., traumatic experiences, phobias) Long-term potentiation: certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned (neurons that fire together, wire together) ○ synapses between neurons increase, dendrites branch out Why do we forget? Encoding failures To encode it, we must first attend to it Most events we experience are never encoded! The next-in-line effect Self-reference effect: we have a better memory for info that relates to us Encoding failures Stress ○ Stress reduces the accuracy of eyewitness recall and correct identification (e.g., POW study, less accurate ID with high-intensity interrogation) ○ Stress can focus attention (e.g., pen vs. syringe experiment) Encoding failures can also happen because of: Own age bias: We’re better at remembering the faces of people who are close to our own age. Cross-race effect: We’re better at recognizing and remembering faces of people from our own race compared to other races. Why do we forget? Retrieval failure Decay: fades over time Interference: loss of information due to competition with new information ○ Retroactive interference: New information makes it hard to remember old information. ○ Proactive interference: Old information makes it hard to learn new information. Amnesia: The loss of long-term memory that occurs as a result of disease, physical or psychological trauma. 2 types: (1) Anterograde amnesia: inability to remember new info after point of trauma Commonly caused by brain trauma The hippocampus is usually affected – inability to transfer info from STM to LTM (2) Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory (partial or complete) for events that occurred prior to trauma Case Study: Clive Wearing suffered brain damage in 1985 from a virus (herpes simplex encephalitis). His hippocampus was severely damaged, leading to: ○ Anterograde amnesia: He can’t form new memories. ○ Retrograde amnesia: He lost some old memories too. ○ Nicknamed “30-second Clive” because his memory resets every 30 seconds. He can still play the piano beautifully, even though he doesn’t remember learning it. What does this show? Declarative memory: (facts/events, like names or dates) depends on the hippocampus and was damaged. Non-declarative memory: (skills, like playing piano) doesn’t rely on the hippocampus and was preserved. Retrieving memories Retrieval: the act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness 1. Recall – being able to access information without cues (e.g., for a short answer test) 2. Recognition – being able to identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again (e.g., multiple-choice questions) Levels of processing theory The depth of information during exposure to material (the degree to which it is analyzed & considered) is critical The greater the intensity of the initial processing, the more likely we are to remember it! Shallow: information processed by physical & sensory aspects (e.g., memorizing key terms) Deepest: analyzing information in terms of meaning – think about the meaning and reflecting on how they relate to information we already know! Encoding specificity Remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve the info are similar to the encoding conditions Context-dependent learning Context-dependent learning happens when the environment in which you learn something helps you remember it better if you're in the same environment during recall. ○ Ex. Students often perform better on tests when they take them in the same classroom where they studied Scuba Study: Researchers tested divers who learned a list of words: Underwater learners remembered better underwater. On-land learners remembered better on land. State-dependent learning State-dependent learning occurs when information learned in a specific physical or mental state (e.g., sober, intoxicated, stressed) is easier to recall when in that same state. Alcohol - when someone learns or remembers behaviors while intoxicated, those behaviors might be harder to recall or replicate while sober. Flashbulb memory A record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations. ○ Memories that are exceptional are more easily retrieved (though not necessary accurate) Depending on age and awareness/interests, certain flashbulb memories act as generational reference points. Eg: ○ Assassinations of John Kennedy, Martin Luther King ○ The first humans landing on the Moon ○ Attacks on 9/11 Memory is reconstructive! We forget over time Memories change over time and can be influenced by: ○ Cognitive “hardware” (stereotypes, schema, scripts) ○ Post-event information Important implications for the courtroom! Schemas & scripts Schemas/scripts: organized knowledge structures or mental models that we’ve stored in memory – used to “fill in the gap” ○ Memory may be distorted to conform with schema/script ○ E.g., robbery script study – ps recalled missing details to conform with script ○ Stereotypes can also influence memories Memories are suggestible! Suggestibility: the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories. ○ Can cause people to claim to remember something that was only a suggestion someone made ○ Memories are fragile, vulnerable to suggestion ○ Important area of study is eyewitness testimony The misinformation effect Where post-event information alters or becomes incorporated into the original memory How fast were the cars going when they ______ into each other? Did you see any broken glass?  What did you see vs. did you see the car pass the yield sign? False memories A recollection of an event that is either fabricated or distorted, or that differs from how the event actually happened. False memories can be very vivid and convincing, and it can be hard to convince someone that their memory is incorrect. Loftus (1997) Participants were asked to report what they recalled about events from their past (3 true, 1 false) After two interviews, 25% of participants remembered an implanted memory of being lost at the mall Hyman et al (1997) told participants they had spilled punch on a wedding guest when they were 5 Initially none recall this, but eventually 27% accepted it as true, some elaborated with details Mandela Effect: The Mandela Effect is a social phenomenon where a group of people misremember a fact, event, or detail that never happened E.g; Looney Tunes, Not Toons, The Berenstain Bears not Berenstein, etc. Laboratory Induction of false childhood memories Researchers have been able to implant a wide variety of false memories, including some mildly traumatic ones ○ Being hospitalized overnight ○ Being attacked by a dog ○ Nearly drowning ○ Witnessing demonic possession ○ Meeting Bugs Bunny at Disneyland! Memory Hacker (Shaw & Porter, 2015) Controversial study which claims that 70% of participants were successfully implanted with a false memory N=60 college students Over the course of 3 interviews, became convinced they committed a crime (ranging from theft to assault with a weapon) Eyewitness Misidentification Eyewitness misidentification is the leading cause of wrongful convictions Under intense pressure, through suggestive police practices, or over time, an eyewitness is more likely to find it difficult to correctly recall details about what they saw. Line-up Procedures Witnesses identify a culprit from a lineup or photo array Lineups contain the suspect and a set of foils or distractors Picking Ronald Cotton: A case in eyewitness misidentification In 1984, Jennifer Thompson misidentified Ronald Cotton as her attacker during a rape investigation. She picked him out from both a photo and a live lineup. Cotton was convicted based on her testimony, despite no physical evidence linking him to the crime. He served 11 years in prison before DNA testing proved another man, Bobby Poole, was the real perpetrator. Cotton was exonerated in 1995. The case highlights the unreliability of eyewitness testimony and the importance of DNA evidence in preventing wrongful convictions. LANGUAGE, THINKING & REASONING: TOPIC 4 Language: Communication of information through symbols arranged according to rules Central to communication, also closely tied to the way we think and understand the world! Language develops without formal instruction. Children learn language naturally through exposure. Despite differences in language, children worldwide hit similar milestones (e.g., babbling, first words, combining words) at roughly the same ages. This suggests language acquisition is rooted in universal cognitive and neurological processes. Phonemes: the ingredients  Any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another, for example p, b, d, and t in the English words pad, pat, bad, and bat. ○ Categories of sound our vocal apparatus produces. ○ Words typically contain 2 or more phonemes. ○ The same sound can have different spellings (e.g., /eɪ/ in "bait," "weight," "plate"). ○ In English, 26 letters, 40 - 45 phonemes. Cross-linguistic differences: The Hawaiian language has few phonemes. Japanese has a single sound category that encompasses both L & R sounds. Morphemes: The menu items A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that contains meaning. "Dog" is an example of a free morpheme. The word "incoming" has three morphemes "-in," "come," and "-ing." ○ Smallest unit of meaning in a language. ○ Most morphemes are words. ○ Some aren’t words but modify the meaning of other words (e.g., re-). Syntax: Putting together the meal The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language. Set of rules of a language by which we construct a sentence. Example: “Pizza ate I for dinner” – doesn’t follow English syntax (but does for other languages). This is an example of Italian syntax Nonverbal Gestures & Culture Language Acquisition & Deprivation Critical period – proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life. ○ Being deprived of language during the critical period impedes the ability to fully acquire and use language. ○ Cases like “Genie Wylie” support a critical period but are complicated by other factors.  The younger you are, the better you will learn a new language (“less is more” theory). Bilingualism: the earlier you learn another language, the better. Language Development: Babbling Babbling from 3 months – 1 year. ○ First babble ALL sounds but later specialize in their own language (by 6-8 months). ○ They are born with the ability to recognize ALL phonemes but eventually, brains remove sounds it doesn't need. Language Development: Words & Phrases! Around age 1 to 2, children start combining words to create simple two-word phrases. ○ Examples: "More juice," "Mommy help!," "All gone!" By age 2: ~50 vocabulary words. By 6 months later: several hundred! Telegraphic speech ○ A stage of language development in which children use short phrases or sentences to communicate by excluding function words and grammatical morphemes ○ e.g., “I show book.” Language Development: Sentences & More By age 3: Make plurals and use past tense BUT overgeneralize (e.g., "he runned," "the fishes"). By age 5: Acquire all basic rules. How Do Children Acquire Language? Learning-Theory Approaches Follows principles of reinforcement & conditioning. Children are praised for using language. The more parents speak to children, the more proficient.  Doesn't fully explain language rules (e.g., children are reinforced for using grammar incorrectly). Nativist Approach Children are born with basic knowledge of language. language acquisition device – A hypothetical "language organ" in the brain that is pre-programmed to understand and produce language. Gene related to the development of language abilities. Difficult to falsify. Interactionist Approach Pre-programmed with hardware, develop software through exposure and environment. Adults don’t just model language for children to imitate—they actively teach by directing attention and clarifying meanings. ○ Example: "Look at that dog over there! No, this is a puppy, not a bunny!" The environment produces differences in language. Guugu Yimithirr Language Traditional language of the Guugu Yimithirr people of Far North Queensland (indigenous). No words for "left" or "right." Communicate using cardinal directions (north/east/south/west). ○ Example: “Pick up that item with your west-facing hand.” How Does Language Shape Our Thinking? Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) The language we speak influences how we think, understand, and perceive the world. ○ Examples: Egocentric vs. geocentric, time perception & metaphors, language & blame. Example of varying word definitions for snow:  ○ English: Snow ○ Inuit: Aniu (snow for making water) Masak (wet snow) Falling snow… slushy snow… Thinking and reasoning Thinking Manipulation of mental representations of information. Cognitive Economy: Our brains aim to be efficient, using shortcuts to save mental energy. Cognitive misers: We prefer to think as little as possible when solving problems, relying on habits, rules of thumb, or quick judgments. Top-down processes Our brain uses what we already know to quickly and easily sense new information. Instead of analyzing every detail, we rely on past knowledge and experiences to "fill in the gaps." ○ Less cognitive effort! ○ Speeds up cognitive processing. ○ Helps reduce complexity of new experiences. Concepts: Our knowledge and ideas about a set of objects, actions, and characteristics that share core properties. Prototypes: Best or most typical example of a concept. ○ Example: Think of a table… a bird… what comes to mind first? BUT….Can lead to biased judgments, reinforce stereotypes, and overlook information that doesn’t match. Concept Example: Simple concept of a dog: Four legs. Tail. Furry. Barks. Loyal. Good pet. Reasoning/Problem Solving How do we solve problems and/or make decisions? Algorithm A rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to the problem. ○ Only works for well-defined problems. (ex. Math or rubiks cube) ○ Time-consuming. Following all the steps can take a while. Heuristic General problem-solving framework (shortcuts, rules of thumb). It’s faster than an algorithm but doesn’t always guarantee the right answer. Obstacles: Cognitive biases (i.e., heuristics). ○ Heuristics can lead to biases in thinking, where we make systematic errors. Mental sets. ○ Getting stuck using the same solution for problems, even when it doesn’t work anymore. Functional fixedness. ○ Struggling to see objects being used in new ways beyond their typical function. Why Are Heuristics Useful (and Necessary)? Impossible to always consider all information. Reduce mental effort needed to make decisions. Simplify the decision-making process. Are often correct! BUT They can lead to costly errors. Representativeness Heuristic It’s a mental shortcut where we judge how likely something is based on how similar it seems to a stereotype or typical example (a "prototype"). It helps make quick decisions, but it can lead to mistakes because it ignores actual probabilities (base rates).  ○ Example: Assuming a quiet, bookish person is a librarian because they fit the stereotype, even though it’s statistically more likely they have another job. Base Rate Fallacy This happens when people ignore general facts (base rates) and focus too much on specific details. Example: Clerks in stores use the products a shopper is buying to judge their age. ○ Older products --> increase estimates of age. More Prototypical = More Credible. Real-World Applications of the Representativeness Heuristic Jury Decisions: A defendant looks unkempt and nervous, so the jury assumes they’re guilty because they "fit the stereotype" of a criminal. Doctor Diagnoses: A patient with a fever and cough is quickly diagnosed with the flu because it matches the typical symptoms, even though it might be COVID. Choosing a Restaurant: A diner chooses a fancy-looking restaurant because they assume it must have better food than a simpler-looking place. Stereotyping in Social Interactions: Someone assumes a quiet, glasses-wearing individual is highly intelligent because they match the "nerd" stereotype Availability Heuristic The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut where we estimate how likely something is based on how easily examples come to mind. ○ News stories about sensationalized and relatively rare topics (shark attacks & plane crashes) make the event seem more common than it is! Karlsson, Loewenstein & Ariely (2008): When are people more likely to buy insurance to protect themselves? — Right after they’ve experienced a natural disaster. In 2006: Flood insurance policies in the US increased by 14.3%! Anchoring Heuristic Relying on a single piece of information (the anchor) to inform decision-making.  ○ Ex. Seeing a shirt priced at $100, but then it’s on sale for $50. You think it’s a great deal because the original price ($100) anchors your perception, even if $50 is still expensive for the shirt. Anchor = Recommendation The Downside of Heuristics… Can lead to costly errors & bias, especially in high-stakes circumstances. Representativeness Heuristic: Wrongly pursuing a suspect because they "look like" a criminal. ○ Judging someone based on stereotypes rather than evidence. Availability Heuristic: Associating certain racial groups with crime because news reports overrepresent them. ○ This leads to stereotypes and reinforces prejudice. Guy Paul Morin Wrongfully convicted of murdering a 9-year-old girl. Fixated on Morin as a suspect because he was a “weird guy.” “…wrongful convictions most often occur when somebody is an outlier – someone who seems strange to the rest of us; a loner; part of an unusual family; a ‘weird type guy,’ as one of the police investigators so artfully described Morin in their notes.” Framing The way a question/statement is formulated can influence decision-making. ○ Gain vs. loss framing, survival vs. mortality framing. Example: “We can treat your cancer with surgery, which has a 90% post-procedure survival rate and a 34% five-year survival rate.” “We can treat your cancer with surgery, which has a 10% post-procedure fatality rate and a 66% 5-year fatality rate.” COVID-19 & Framing  Loss vs. gain-framed messages. ○ Loss-framed increased anxiety, no impact on policy attitudes, behavioral intentions, or information seeking (across 84 countries!). ○ The emotional toll of loss-framed messages. Hindsight Bias: ○ Tendency to overestimate how well we could have predicted something after it has already occurred. People think their judgment is better than it is! Disconnect clouds judgment & ability to learn from past mistakes. Ex. Hindsight Bias: “I knew it all along!” Monday Morning Quarterback Phenomena: Someone who says how an event/problem should have been dealt with by others after it has already been dealt with. Confirmation Bias The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that supports a person’s prior beliefs (and distort what doesn’t fit). Tunnel Vision: Focus on information that supports a particular point of view. Confirmation Bias & Tunnel Vision in Police Investigations Confirmation Bias: Detective believes a suspect is guilty, focuses only on evidence that points toward them, downplays or disregards evidence that exonerates them. Tunnel Vision: Detective becomes fixated on one suspect because of behavior or initial circumstantial evidence (e.g., suspect seems detached) – focuses investigation on this person. Amanda Knox  In 2007, Knox was accused of murdering her roommate while on exchange in Perugia, Italy. Knox & her boyfriend were arrested and convicted in 2009 based on circumstantial evidence. Media coverage speculated about Knox’s character based on her behavior after the murder – media portrayed her as uncooperative, “weird,” etc. Italian courts overturned conviction in 2011 – the highest court freed Knox in 2015.