Psychology PDF

# CHAPTER SIX * Turing test - test made by Alan Turing in 1950 as a means for determining when an AI program has reached the point where it appeared to have human-like consciousness. ## Consciousness * Our immediate awareness of our internal and external states. * Early psychologists defined psy...

# CHAPTER SIX * Turing test - test made by Alan Turing in 1950 as a means for determining when an AI program has reached the point where it appeared to have human-like consciousness. ## Consciousness * Our immediate awareness of our internal and external states. * Early psychologists defined psychology entirely as the study of consciousness. * William James noted that our conscious awareness continually shifts based on what we're paying attention to and how intensely we are attending to our environment. * We feel continually from moment to moment. * James "stream of consciousness" - we experience our conscious life like consciousness line a running stream, keeps flowing with time. * First half 20th century shifted interest from consciousness to observable behavior. ## WHEN WE ARE AWAKE: CONSCIOUS AWARENESS * Outer or inner worlds we are currently attending to/focusing on. ## Altered states of consciousness: * A change in a person's ability to be fully aware of their external surroundings and internal states. * Include: * Being asleep. * Having a dream. * Hypnosis. * Meditation. * Anesthesia. * Effects of psychoactive drugs. ## Scientists study the states more than contents ### States of Consciousness: * The level of awareness we have of our external surroundings * Being fully awake or asleep. ### Contents of Consciousness: * Specific thoughts we are aware of about our internal states or external surroundings. * Being aware of your dog or cat. * Itch between your shoulders. * Need to go to the bathroom. ### Conscious awareness: * The combination of our states and contents of consciousness that make up our awareness and the world around us. * Attention is key part of our awareness. * Most people connect consciousness with being awake but seizures/ epilepsy patients may appear to be awake but not conscious. ## Inattention blindness: * The consistent research finding that people who are not paying attention to a picture, video, or scene are unable to report of the details of what those visual stimuli contain. * Conscious awareness of ourselves, our needs and how to satisfy them has directly helped us in survival, contributing to evolutionary progress. ## WHEN WE ARE AWAKE * When awake most if not all brain neurons constantly active * We use all our brain (not only 10% of it). * Many neural networks must become active simultaneously to process things in front of us. * Visual system enables us to pay attention to what's being observed. * Biological systems enable us to monitor own stress response to situations. * Process into memory what's been seen. * When you have an experience, our brains put together the visual and smell into a unified experience. ## The Reticular Formation * Before we can be aware we must be awake. * Electrical stimulation of brainstem could bring an animal out of a state of sleep into a state of alert arousal. * Meningoencephalitis or damage to front portion of brain prolongs loss of consciousness. * Altered state of consciousness: sleep. * Pontine structures in hind brain may contribute to cases where individuals are in a "locked-in" or paralyzed and in non-communitative state (coma). ## The Thalamus and Hypothalamus * Information needs to be processed for how important it is to us, and decisions about what we will focus our attention on need to be made. ## Brain areas involved in routing messages along proper neural network 1. Hypothalamus. 2. Thalamus * Both receive input from the reticular formation and the hindbrain. * **Hypothalamus**: * Crucial for sending signals from the hindbrain to the forebrain or cortex for consciousness. * Activation of loops of circuits between the thalamus, different sensory and motor areas of the cortex is critical for us to be consciously aware of our surroundings. * A loss of parts of the thalamus (thalamocortical circuits) can lead to a lack of conscious awareness of specific parts of the body or our surrounding environments. * **Thalamus**: * Via several sub areas, including paraventricular and mammillary nuclei. * Relays signals received from the hindbrain to the cortex. * To maintain an awake and attentive state. * Damage to the neurotransmitters systems of the hypothalamus specifically the orexin system can lead to disturbances of wakefulness, such as narcolepsy. ## The Cerebral Cortex * Some areas of the brain in the cerebral cortex are in charge of one's awareness of the information the cortex receives from subcortical structures. * **Primary visual areas in cerebral cortex creates blindness when damages**. * **Areas of the brain that help us attend to visual stimuli are different from the visual areas in cerebral cortex that help us be aware we are attending to such stimuli.** * **Corpus collosum severed** - patients briefly presented withan object or a word in their left or right visual fields. * **Left cerebral cortex** is responsible for verbal awareness and the ability to send a motor command to the mouth from Broca's area in order for the word to be spoken. * **Right cerebral cortex** is responsible for non-verbal forms of conscious awareness. * **Right cerebral cortex** can produce tactile awearness but not verbal awareness. * Most people; hemispheres connected; various kinds of awareness occur simultaneously producing broad and complete sense of conscious awareness. * **Cortex is critical for the structure or contents of consciousness that we each experience.** * **Synchronized activity of temporal, parietal, and visual cortex information from the environment is critical for us to be aware of an object.** * **Senses must be used to be aware of things.** * **Network of connections between frontal and parietal lobes is necessary with the frontal lobes playing a key role in deciding what we should focus on most happen for us to draw our awareness to something.** ## Development and Consciousness * **Component skills of consciousness:** * Direct attention. * Hold concepts in mind. * Engage in planned or intentional behaviours. * **Sense of self**: Being aware of oneself as separate beings from others. ## WHEN WE ARE AWAKE: PRECONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS STATES * **Levels of consciousness** or "degrees of consciousness". * **Preconsciousness**: Level of awareness in which information can become readily available to consciousness if necessary. * **Unconscious state**: State in which information is not easily accessible to conscious awareness. * Sigmund Freud suggest something triggered release of the appropriate memory. ## Cognitive Views of the Unconscious * 20th Century: Rejected Freud's theory and notion that people's behaviours, thoughts, and feelings may be influenced by mental forces of which they are totally unaware. * **Implicit memory**: Most prominent cognitive explanation for unconscious processing. * **Explicit memories**: Involve pieces of knowledge that you are fully aware of. The conscious, intentional recovery of a memory. * **Implicit memory**: * Skills we acquire. * Involve factual information. * Information at the root of behavior. * Not always aware of past experiences that influence our decisions. * Implicit memories are part of everyday functioning opposed to a way of keeping unpleasant information from reaching our awareness. * **Implicit and explicit memories stored in different pathways in the brain.** * **"Unconscious" decision making** quick intuitive judgments. * **Experiences generate Solutions** Gary Klein. ## Coma and Altered Consciousness * The brain is the center of who we are. * Neurological consequences when brain been damaged to point of coma. * Consequence: altered state of consciousness. * Coma: Vegetative state. * Non-responsive stimuli, unable to communicate. * Does not mean no preserved cognitive ability. * Upper brainstem stroke; appear to be in vegetative state when cognitive function remains entirely in tact. ## Consciousness Awareness * **Conscious awareness** * Being aware of what has reached our attention. * Must pay attention and be aware we are paying attention. ## Altered States of Consciousness * **Meditation**. * **Being asleep.** * **Having a dream**. * **Anesthesia**. * **Hypnosis.** * **Psychoactive drugs**. ## States of Consciousness * **Preconsciousness**: Level of awareness in which information can become readily available to consciousness if necessary. * **Unconscious state**: Stare in which information is not easily accessible to conscious awareness. * **Automatic behaviors**: An action that occurs without conscious awareness or control. ## Freud's View of the Unconscious * **Conscious**. * **Preconscious**. * **Unconscious**. ## EEG Patterns associated with states of consciousness * **Beta** frequency (cps): 13- 24. * Typical state of consciousness: normal waking thought, alert problem solving. * **Alpha** frequency (cps): 8-12. * Typical state of consciousness: deep relaxation, blank mind, meditation. * **Theta** frequency (cps): 4-7. * Typical state of consciousness: light sleep. * **Delta** frequency (cps): < 4 * Typical state of consciousness: deep sleep. ## Inattentional blindness * Failure to notice things around us to which we are not paying attention. ## Awareness vs Attention * **Memory**-- two main types * **Explicit memory**: Involves pieces of knowledge that you are fully aware of. * **Implicit memory**: Knowledge that we have stored in memory that we are not typically aware of or able to call at will. ### Skills we have acquired that have become automatic: * Information that we have that we no longer reflect directly on when making decisions. ## Adaptive Theory of Sleep * Theory that organisms sleep for the purpose of self-preservation, to keep away from predators. ## Restoration Theory * Sleep restores our brains and bodies. ## Brain areas involved * **Intralaminar nuclei and midline nuclei of the thalamus**. * **Damage bilaterally:** Coma. * **Damage unilaterally:** Loss of awareness of one half of the body. ## Sleep/Wake Cycle * Controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. ## Circadian Rhythm (biological clock) * 24-hour cycle (sleep/wake) cycles. ## Sleep Cycles * 90-100 min/sleep cycle * One cycle goes through Stage 1, 2, 3, 4, and REM. * About five cycles a night. | Stage | Description | |---|---| | Alert | Relaxed and alert | | Awake and Drowsy | Stage One: Transition into sleep. | | Stage Two | Harder to wake, more relaxed | | Stage Three | Deeper sleep (5 to 15 minutes) | | Stage Four | Deepest sleep (20 to 30 minutes) | | REM | Rapid eye movement, jagged brain wave patterns, increased HR, rapid breathing, and dreaming . | | First REM period | The fastest eye movements and May be the period from which dreams are best remembered | | Last REM period | The fastest eye movements and may be the period from which dreams are best remembered. | * **During sleep, brain has random activity that activates the sensory systems of the cortex.** * **Dreams reflect brains efforts to make sense out of or find meaning in the neural activity that takes place during sleep.** ## Information Processing Theory of Dreaming: * Dreams involve processing information from the day (encoding memories). * Could be a mental realm where we can solve problems and think creatiely. * Dreams represent the expression of unconscious wishes or desires. ## Freudian Dream Theory: * Dreams represent the expression of unconscious wishes or desires. ## D & B Sleep Deprivation * Ideal amount of sleep people want is between 9 and 10 hours. ## Chronic Sleep Loss * General depressed state. * Lower immune system. * Lower ability to concentrate. * Higher incidence of accidents. * Lower productivity and higher likelihood of making mistakes. ## Night Terrors * Stage 3 or 4. * Child screams in panic, goes back to sleep immediately and does not remember the event in the morning. * Resolves by adolescence. ## Insomnia * Most common. * Difficulty going to sleep, staying asleep or wake early. * Caused by stress, drug dependence, pain, depression. ## Sleepwalking * Most common in children. * Occurs in stages 3 or 4. * Appears to be inherited. ## Sleep Disorders * **Narcolepsy**: * Excessive daytime sleepiness. * Suddenly fall into REM sleep during the day. * Can last up to 15 minutes. * Genetic factors involved. * No cure. * **Sleep Apnea**: * Second most common. * Repeatedly stops breathing during the night. * Possible to have hundreds of attacks per night. * Can lead to cardiac arrest. * **Nightmare Disorder**: * Experience frequent nightmares. * More common when stressed and in children. ## Hypnosis * Altered state of consciousness with heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus. * **Posthypnotic response**: * Posthypnotic amnesia. * Hypnotic hallucinations. * Decreased acticity in anterior cingulate cortex when used to reduce pain. ## How is the participant's attention diverted from the pain? ### Divided Conscioiusness Theory * Hypnosis splits awareness into two parts: One part responds to the hypnotists suggestion, the other part continues to process pain and information but at a less conscious level. ### Social/Cognitive Process Theory * The participant is highly motivated to believe in hypnosis and without awareness, works hard to ignore the pain. ## Meditation * A technique designed to turn one's consciousness away from the outer world toward one's inner cues and awareness. * **Opening Up Approach**: Clear ones mind in order to receive new experiences. * **Concetrative Meditation**: Actively concentrate on an object, word, or idea called a mantra. * **Mindfulness Meditation**: Pay attention to ones feelings, thoughts, and sensations. ## Neuroimaging Research * Suggests that the brain's anterior cingulate cortex may be particularly involved when hypnosis is used to anesthetize or reduce pain. ## Psychoactive drugs * Any substance that alters mood, perception, awareness, or thought. * **Addiction**: Psychological or physical compulsion to take a drug resulting from regular ingestion and leading to maladaptive patterns of behavior and changes in physical response. ### Depressants * **Act on the CNS to suppress bodily processes**. * **Alcohol**: Influences GABAergic neurons. * **Sedative-hypnotics**: Xanax, Ativan, Valium * **Opioids** (opium, heroin, morphine, codeine, methadone) * Activates the opioid receptors in the brain providing their analgesic effect and their related high. ### Stimulants * **Act on the CNS to increase bodily processes**. * **Caffeine**: Works on adenosine neurons. * **Nicotine**: Influences dopamine and acetylcholine neurons. * **Cocaine**: Blocks neuronal re-uptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. * **Amphetamines**: Increase release of dopamine and norepinephrine. ### Hallucinogens * Produce sensory or perceptual distortions (hallucinations). * **LSD**: Stimulates dopamine and serotonin receptors. * **Cannabis** (marijuana, THC): Stimulates release of endorphins and dopamine. * **MDMA** (Ecstasy): Leads to an increase of serotonin. ## Psychoactive drugs activate a "reward learning pathway" or "pleasure pathway" in the brain * **Prefrontal Cortex**. * **Nucleus Accumbens**. * **Ventral Tegmental area of Midbrain**. * **Cingulate Cortex**. ## Reward-Deficiency Syndrome * People might abuse drugs because their reward center is not readily activateed by usual life events ## Intralaminar and midline nuclei of the thalamus * **Damage bilaterally**: Coma. * **Damage unilaterally**: Loss of awareness of one half of the body ## Cerebral Cortex - Cingulate Cortex * **Sleep/Wake cycle** is controlled by the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. ## Pineal Gland * Regulates the body's sleep/wake cycle also known as the circadian rhythm by producing and secreting the hormone Melatonin. ## Circadian Rhythm (biological clock) * 24-hour cycle (sleep wake) cycles. ## Sleep Cycles * **Alert**: Awake, relaxed, and alert. * **Awake and Drowsy**: Stage one: Transition into sleep. * **Stage Two**: Harder to wake, more relaxed sleep. * **Stage Three**: Deeper sleep (5-15 minutes). * **Stage Four**: Deepest sleep (20-30 minutes). * **REM**: Rapid eye movement, jagged brain wave patterns, increased HR, rapid breathing and dreaming. * **First REM period**: The fastest eye movements and may be the period from which dreams are best remembered. * **Last REM period**: The fastest eye movements and may be the period from which dreams are best remembered. ## Information Processing Theory of Dreaming * **Dreams involve processing information from the day (encoding memories).** * **Dreams could be a mental realm where we can solve problems and think creatively.** * **Dreams represent the expression of unconscious wishes or desires.** ## Freudian Dream Theory * Dreams represent the expression of unconscious wishes or desires. ## D & B Sleep Deprivation * Ideal amount of sleep people want is between 9 and 10 hours. ## Chronic Sleep Loss * **General depressed state.** * **Lower immune system.** * **Lower ability to concentrate.** * **Higher incidence of accidents.** * **Lower productivity and higher likelihood of making mistakes.** ## Night Terrors * **Stage 3 or 4.** * **Child screams in panic, goes back to sleep immediately and does not remember the event in the morning.** * **Resolves by adolescence.** ## Insomnia * **Most common.** * **Difficulty going to sleep, staying asleep, or wake early.** * **Caused by stress, drug dependence, pain, or depression.** ## Sleepwalking * **Most common in children.** * **Occurs in stages 3 or 4.** * **Appears to be inherited.** ## Sleep Disorders * **Narcolepsy**: * **Excessive daytime sleepiness.** * **Suddenly fall into REM sleep during the day.** * **Can last up to 15 minutes.** * **Genetic factors involved.** * **No cure.** * **Sleep Apnea**: * **Second most common.** * **Repeatedly stops breathing during the night.** * **Possible to have hundreds of attacks per night.** * **Can lead to cardiac arrest.** * **Nightmare Disorder**: * **Experience frequent nightmares.** * **More common when stressed and in children.** ## Hypnosis * **Altered state of consciousness with heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus.** * **Posthypnotic response:** * **Posthypnotic amnesia.** * **Hypnotic hallucinations.** * **Decreased activity in anterior cingulate cortex when used to reduce pain. ## How is the participant's attention diverted from the pain? ### Divided Consciousness Theory * **Hypnosis splits awareness into two parts: One part responds to the hypnotists suggestion, the other part continues to process pain and information but at a less conscious level.** ### Social/Cognitive Process Theory * **The participant is highly motivated to believe in hypnosis and without awareness, works hard to ignore the pain.** ## Meditation * A technique designed to turn one's consciousness away from the outer world toward one's inner cues and awareness. * **Opening Up Approach**: Clear ones mind in order to receive new experiences. * **Concetrative Meditation**: Actively concentrate on an object, word, or idea called a mantra. * **Mindfulness Meditation**: Pay attention to ones feelings, thoughts, and sensations. ## Neuroimaging Research * **Suggests that the brain's anterior cingulate cortex may be particularly involved when hypnosis is used to anesthetize or reduce pain.** ## Psychoactive Drugs * **Any substance that alters mood, perception, awareness, or thought.** * **Addiction:** Psychological or physical compulsion to take a drug resulting from regular ingestion and leading to maladaptive patterns of behavior and changes in physical response. ### Depressants * **Act on the CNS to suppress bodily processes**. * **Alcohol**: Influences GABAergic neurons. * **Sedative-hypnotics**: Xanax, Ativan, Valium * **Opioids** (opium, heroin, morphine, codeine, methadone) * Activates the opioid receptors in the brain providing their analgesic effect and their related high. ### Stimulants * **Act on the CNS to increase bodily processes**. * **Caffeine**: Works on adenosine neurons. * **Nicotine**: Influences dopamine and acetylcholine neurons. * **Cocaine**: Blocks neuronal re-uptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. * **Amphetamines**: Increase release of dopamine and norepinephrine. ### Hallucinogens * Produce sensory or perceptual distortions (hallucinations). * **LSD**: Stimulates dopamine and serotonin receptors. * **Cannabis** (marijuana, THC): Stimulates release of endorphins and dopamine. * **MDMA** (Ecstasy): Leads to an increase of serotonin. ## Psychoactive Drugs activate a "reward learning pathway" or "pleasure pathway" in the brain * **Prefrontal Cortex**. * **Nucleus Accumbens**. * **Ventral Tegmental area of Midbrain**. * **Cingulate Cortex**. ## Reward-Deficiency Syndrome * People might abuse drugs because their reward center is not readily activateed by usual life events ## Intralaminar and midline nuclei of the thalamus * **Damage bilaterally**: Coma. * **Damage unilaterally**: Loss of awareness of one half of the body ## Cerebral Cortex - Cingulate Cortex * **Sleep/Wake cycle** is controlled by the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. ## Pineal Gland * Regulates the body's sleep/wake cycle also known as the circadian rhythm by producing and secreting the hormone Melatonin. ## Circadian Rhythm (biological clock) * 24-hour cycle (sleep wake) cycles. ## Sleep Cycles * **Alert**: Awake, relaxed, and alert. * **Awake and Drowsy**: Stage one: Transition into sleep. * **Stage Two**: Harder to wake, more relaxed sleep. * **Stage Three**: Deeper sleep (5-15 minutes). * **Stage Four**: Deepest sleep (20-30 minutes). * **REM**: Rapid eye movement, jagged brain wave patterns, increased HR, rapid breathing and dreaming. * **First REM period**: The fastest eye movements and may be the period from which dreams are best remembered. * **Last REM period**: The fastest eye movements and may be the period from which dreams are best remembered. ## Information Processing Theory of Dreaming * **Dreams involve processing information from the day (encoding memories).** * **Dreams could be a mental realm where we can solve problems and think creatively.** * **Dreams represent the expression of unconscious wishes or desires.** ## Freudian Dream Theory * Dreams represent the expression of unconscious wishes or desires. ## D & B Sleep Deprivation * Ideal amount of sleep people want is between 9 and 10 hours. ## Chronic Sleep Loss * **General depressed state.** * **Lower immune system.** * **Lower ability to concentrate.** * **Higher incidence of accidents.** * **Lower productivity and higher likelihood of making mistakes.** ## Night Terrors * **Stage 3 or 4.** * **Child screams in panic, goes back to sleep immediately and does not remember the event in the morning.** * **Resolves by adolescence.** ## Insomnia * **Most common.** * **Difficulty going to sleep, staying asleep, or wake early.** * **Caused by stress, drug dependence, pain, or depression.** ## Sleepwalking * **Most common in children.** * **Occurs in stages 3 or 4.** * **Appears to be inherited.** ## Sleep Disorders * **Narcolepsy**: * **Excessive daytime sleepiness.** * **Suddenly fall into REM sleep during the day.** * **Can last up to 15 minutes.** * **Genetic factors involved.** * **No cure.** * **Sleep Apnea**: * **Second most common.** * **Repeatedly stops breathing during the night.** * **Possible to have hundreds of attacks per night.** * **Can lead to cardiac arrest.** * **Nightmare Disorder**: * **Experience frequent nightmares.** * **More common when stressed and in children.** ## Hypnosis * **Altered state of consciousness with heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus.** * **Posthypnotic response:** * **Posthypnotic amnesia.** * **Hypnotic hallucinations.** * **Decreased activity in anterior cingulate cortex when used to reduce pain. ## How is the participant's attention diverted from the pain? ### Divided Consciousness Theory * **Hypnosis splits awareness into two parts: One part responds to the hypnotists suggestion, the other part continues to process pain and information but at a less conscious level.** ### Social/Cognitive Process Theory * **The participant is highly motivated to believe in hypnosis and without awareness, works hard to ignore the pain.** ## Meditation * A technique designed to turn one's consciousness away from the outer world toward one's inner cues and awareness. * **Opening Up Approach**: Clear ones mind in order to receive new experiences. * **Concetrative Meditation**: Actively concentrate on an object, word, or idea called a mantra. * **Mindfulness Meditation**: Pay attention to ones feelings, thoughts, and sensations. ## Neuroimaging Research * **Suggests that the brain's anterior cingulate cortex may be particularly involved when hypnosis is used to anesthetize or reduce pain.** ## Psychoactive Drugs * **Any substance that alters mood, perception, awareness, or thought.** * **Addiction:** Psychological or physical compulsion to take a drug resulting from regular ingestion and leading to maladaptive patterns of behavior and changes in physical response. ### Depressants * **Act on the CNS to suppress bodily processes**. * **Alcohol**: Influences GABAergic neurons. * **Sedative-hypnotics**: Xanax, Ativan, Valium * **Opioids** (opium, heroin, morphine, codeine, methadone) * Activates the opioid receptors in the brain providing their analgesic effect and their related high. ### Stimulants * **Act on the CNS to increase bodily processes**. * **Caffeine**: Works on adenosine neurons. * **Nicotine**: Influences dopamine and acetylcholine neurons. * **Cocaine**: Blocks neuronal re-uptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. * **Amphetamines**: Increase release of dopamine and norepinephrine. ### Hallucinogens * Produce sensory or perceptual distortions (hallucinations). * **LSD**: Stimulates dopamine and serotonin receptors. * **Cannabis** (marijuana, THC): Stimulates release of endorphins and dopamine. * **MDMA** (Ecstasy): Leads to an increase of serotonin. ## Psychoactive drugs activate a "reward learning pathway" or "pleasure pathway" in the brain * **Prefrontal Cortex**. * **Nucleus Accumbens**. * **Ventral Tegmental area of Midbrain**. * **Cingulate Cortex**. ## Reward-Deficiency Syndrome * People might abuse drugs because their reward center is not readily activateed by usual life events ## Intralaminar and midline nuclei of the thalamus * **Damage bilaterally**: Coma. * **Damage unilaterally**: Loss of awareness of one half of the body ## Cerebral Cortex - Cingulate Cortex * **Sleep/Wake cycle** is controlled by the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. ## Pineal Gland * Regulates the body's sleep/wake cycle also known as the circadian rhythm by producing and secreting the hormone Melatonin. ## Circadian Rhythm (biological clock) * 24-hour cycle (sleep wake) cycles. ## Sleep Cycles * **Alert**: Awake, relaxed, and alert. * **Awake and Drowsy**: Stage one: Transition into sleep. * **Stage Two**: Harder to wake, more relaxed sleep. * **Stage Three**: Deeper sleep (5-15 minutes). * **Stage Four**: Deepest sleep (20-30 minutes). * **REM**: Rapid eye movement, jagged brain wave patterns, increased HR, rapid breathing and dreaming. * **First REM period**: The fastest eye movements and may be the period from which dreams are best remembered. * **Last REM period**: The fastest eye movements and may be the period from which dreams are best remembered. ## Information Processing Theory of Dreaming * **Dreams involve processing information from the day (encoding memories).** * **Dreams could be a mental realm where we can solve problems and think creatively.** * **Dreams represent the expression of unconscious wishes or desires.** ## Freudian Dream Theory * Dreams represent the expression of unconscious wishes or desires. ## D & B Sleep Deprivation * Ideal amount of sleep people want is between 9 and 10 hours. ## Chronic Sleep Loss * **General depressed state.** * **Lower immune system.** * **Lower ability to concentrate.** * **Higher incidence of accidents.** * **Lower productivity and higher likelihood of making mistakes.** ## Night Terrors * **Stage 3 or 4.** * **Child screams in panic, goes back to sleep immediately and does not remember the event in the morning.** * **Resolves by adolescence.** ## Insomnia * **Most common.** * **Difficulty going to sleep, staying asleep, or wake early.** * **Caused by stress, drug dependence, pain, or depression.** ## Sleepwalking * **Most common in children.** * **Occurs in stages 3 or 4.** * **Appears to be inherited.** ## Sleep Disorders * **Narcolepsy**: * **Excessive daytime sleepiness.** * **Suddenly fall into REM sleep during the day.** * **Can last up to 15 minutes.** * **Genetic factors involved.** * **No cure.** * **Sleep Apnea**: * **Second most common.** * **Repeatedly stops breathing during the night.** * **Possible to have hundreds of attacks per night.** * **Can lead to cardiac arrest.** * **Nightmare Disorder**: * **Experience frequent nightmares.** * **More common when stressed and in children.** ## Hypnosis * **Altered state of consciousness with heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus.** * **Posthypnotic response:** * **Posthypnotic amnesia.** * **Hypnotic hallucinations.** * **Decreased activity in anterior cingulate cortex when used to reduce pain. ## How is the participant's attention diverted from the pain? ### Divided Consciousness Theory * **Hypnosis splits awareness into two parts: One part responds to the hypnotists suggestion, the other part continues to process pain and information but at a less conscious level.** ### Social/Cognitive Process Theory * **The participant is highly motivated to believe in hypnosis and without awareness, works hard to ignore the pain.** ## Meditation * A technique designed to turn one's consciousness away from the outer world toward one's inner cues and awareness. * **Opening Up Approach**: Clear ones mind in order to receive new experiences. * **Concetrative Meditation**: Actively concentrate on an object, word, or idea called a mantra. * **Mindfulness Meditation**: Pay attention to ones feelings, thoughts, and sensations. ## Neuroimaging Research * **Suggests that the brain's anterior cingulate cortex may be particularly involved when hypnosis is used to anesthetize or reduce pain.** ## Psychoactive Drugs * **Any substance that alters mood, perception, awareness, or thought.** * **Addiction:** Psychological or physical compulsion to take a drug resulting from regular ingestion and leading to maladaptive patterns of behavior and changes in physical response. ### Depressants * **Act on the CNS to suppress bodily processes**. * **Alcohol**: Influences GABAergic neurons. * **Sedative-hypnotics**: Xanax, Ativan, Valium * **Opioids** (opium, heroin, morphine, codeine, methadone) * Activates the opioid receptors in the brain providing their analgesic effect and their related high. ### Stimulants * **Act on the CNS to increase bodily processes**. * **Caffeine**: Works on adenosine neurons. * **Nicotine**: Influences dopamine and acetylcholine neurons. * **Cocaine**: Blocks neuronal re-uptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. * **Amphetamines**: Increase release of dopamine and norepinephrine. ### Hallucinogens * Produce sensory or perceptual distortions (hallucinations). * **LSD**: Stimulates dopamine and serotonin receptors. * **Cannabis** (marijuana, THC): Stimulates release of endorphins and dopamine. * **MDMA** (Ecstasy): Leads to an increase of serotonin. ## Psychoactive drugs activate a "reward learning pathway" or "pleasure pathway" in the brain * **Prefrontal Cortex**. * **Nucleus Accumbens**. * **Ventral Tegmental area of Midbrain**. * **Cingulate Cortex**. ## Reward-Deficiency Syndrome * People might abuse drugs because their reward center is not readily activateed by usual life events ## Intralaminar and midline nuclei of the thalamus * **Damage bilaterally**: Coma. * **Damage unilaterally**: Loss of awareness of one half of the body ## Cerebral Cortex - Cingulate Cortex * **Sleep/Wake cycle** is controlled by the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. ## Pineal Gland * Regulates the body's sleep/wake cycle also known as the circadian rhythm by producing and secreting the hormone Melatonin. ## Circadian Rhythm (biological clock) * 24-hour cycle (sleep wake) cycles. ## Sleep Cycles * **Alert**: Awake, relaxed, and alert. * **Awake and Drowsy**: Stage one: Transition into sleep. * **Stage Two**: Harder to wake, more relaxed sleep. * **Stage Three**: Deeper sleep (5-15 minutes). * **Stage Four**: Deepest sleep (20-30 minutes). * **REM**: Rapid eye movement, jagged brain wave patterns, increased HR, rapid breathing and dreaming. * **First REM period**: The fastest eye movements and may be the period from which dreams are best remembered. * **Last REM period**: The fastest eye movements and may be the period from which dreams are best remembered. ## Information Processing Theory of Dreaming * **Dreams involve processing information from the day (encoding memories).** * **Dreams could be a mental realm where we can solve problems and think creatively.** * **Dreams represent the expression of unconscious wishes or desires.** ## Freudian Dream Theory * Dreams represent the expression of unconscious wishes or desires. ## D & B Sleep Deprivation * Ideal amount of sleep people want is between 9 and 10 hours. ## Chronic Sleep Loss * **General depressed state.** * **Lower immune system.** * **Lower ability to concentrate.** * **Higher incidence of accidents.** * **Lower productivity and higher likelihood of making mistakes.** ## Night Terrors * **Stage 3 or 4.** * **Child screams in panic, goes back to sleep immediately and does not remember the event in the morning.** * **Resolves by adolescence.** ## Insomnia * **Most common.** * **Difficulty going to sleep, staying asleep, or wake early.** * **Caused by stress, drug dependence, pain, or depression.** ## Sleepwalking * **Most common in children.** * **Occurs in stages 3 or 4.** * **Appears to be inherited.** ## Sleep Disorders * **Narcolepsy**: * **Excessive daytime sleepiness.** * **Suddenly fall into REM sleep during the day.** * **Can last up to 15 minutes.** * **Genetic factors involved.** * **No cure.** *