The Early History of Toronto - Lecture Notes PDF

📘 Lecture 1 – The Early History of Toronto 🌊 Glacial Origins & Geography ​ Glacial Lake Iroquois: About 2 km inland from the current Lake Ontario shore lies the Iroquois Shoreline, running west-east, roughly along Davenport Road and south of St. Clair Avenue West. The Scarborough Bluf...

📘 Lecture 1 – The Early History of Toronto 🌊 Glacial Origins & Geography ​ Glacial Lake Iroquois: About 2 km inland from the current Lake Ontario shore lies the Iroquois Shoreline, running west-east, roughly along Davenport Road and south of St. Clair Avenue West. The Scarborough Bluffs also mark this ancient shoreline.​ ​ Drumlins:​ ○​ Elongated, teardrop-shaped hills of sand, gravel, and till​ ○​ Form behind moraine formations and point in the direction of ice flow​ ○​ Formed by the streamlined movement of glacial ice sheets​ ○​ Can be up to 2 km long​ ​ Toronto Islands:​ ○​ Originally a 9 km-long sand spit​ ○​ Composed of alluvial deposits from the Scarborough Bluffs​ ○​ Formed by east-to-west currents depositing eroded material​ 🧬 Deep Indigenous History ​ 10,000+ years of human habitation in Toronto​ ​ At the end of the last Ice Age, mammoths and mastodons roamed the area​  ​ Downtown Toronto was submerged under Glacial Lake Iroquois​ 🗣️ Indigenous Place Names & Early Life ​ Ontario: “Skanadariio” – “handsome lake” or “sparkling water”​ ​ Tkaronto: Originally referred to the Lake Simcoe area, later applied to present-day Toronto​ ​ Toronto: “Trees are in the water” (Haudenosaunee origin)​ ​ The popular “meeting place” interpretation came from Henry Scadding​ 🪶 The Mississauga & Anishinabek ​ The Mississauga, part of the Anishinabek, migrated from the east (Seven Fires prophecy)​ ​ Some Iroquoian cultures (Haudenosaunee) likely originated from further south​ ​ Toronto’s history did not begin with Europeans or land agreements​ 🌍 Indigenous Worldviews ​ Colonists: believed in owning the land​ ​ Indigenous peoples: view themselves as caretakers of the land, interconnected with all creation​ ​ Prioritizing ownership frames reproduces Eurocentric narratives​ 🏹 Pre-European Societies ​ At least three distinct peoples: Huron, Haudenosaunee, Mississauga​ ​ Two cultural groups: Iroquoian and Algonquian​ ​ Site of trade gatherings and inter-tribal ceremonies​ 🐘 Ancient Toronto (11,000–8,000 years ago) ​ People migrated into the sub-arctic environment after ice retreated​ ​ Hunted mammoths, mastodons, caribou​ ​ Campsites likely lost under Lake Ontario​ ​ Climate warmed around 8,000 years ago → temperate forests, white-tailed deer replaced caribou​ ​ Rising water levels formed the Toronto Islands and modern shoreline​ 🛶 The Toronto Passage ​ Around 7,000 years ago, Indigenous peoples used the Humber and Rouge Rivers as shortcuts between Lake Ontario and Georgian Bay​ ​ Vital links in North American trade routes (Gulf of Mexico to Lake Superior)​ 🧑‍🌾 Agricultural & Village Life (600–1600 AD) ​ Three Sisters crops (corn, beans, squash) introduced​ ​ Iroquoian societies relied more on farming​  ​ Villages with longhouses, palisades, and cultivated fields​ ​ Villages lasted 10–20 years before relocation due to resource depletion​ 🪢 Confederacies & Cultural Expansion ​ Tribes joined into confederacies (14th–16th centuries)​ ​ The Huron-Wendat Confederacy formed in Georgian Bay​ ​ Toronto became hinterland for hunting, travel, and trade​ ⚔️ Conflict & Control (1600s) ​ Huron-Wendat Confederacy used Toronto as a hinterland and passageway​ ​ Defeated by the Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee) from New York State between 1648–1650​ ​ By 1660, Toronto area became Haudenosaunee territory​ ​ Shifted from Huron hinterland to Iroquois colonial space​ 🛖 Seneca Villages in Toronto (Late 1600s) ​ Ganatsekwyagon: Near the mouth of the Rouge River​ ​ Teiaiagon: On the Humber River near Baby Point​ ​ Strategic sites controlling the Toronto Passage​ ​ Facilitated trade and negotiations with Algonquian-speaking societies​  ​ Marked the first appearance of "Toronto" on French maps​ 🧨 The Beaver Wars (1640–1701) ​ Brutal conflicts between the Iroquois Confederacy and French-allied Indigenous tribes​ ​ Villages like Ganatsekwyagon and Teiaiagon were vulnerable to French attack​ ​ The Haudenosaunee withdrew from Toronto back to New York by ~1670​ 🧍‍♂️ The Mississauga in Toronto (Late 1600s–1700s) ​ Algonquian-speaking Anishinabek moved south, replaced Senecas in Toronto​ ​ Became known as the Mississaugas (from Mississagi River area)​ ​ Camped along Lake Ontario, Toronto Islands, Queen & Shaw, and Church & Front​ ​ Scouted from the hill now occupied by Casa Loma​ ​ Spadina comes from “Ishpadinaa” meaning “sudden rise in the land”​ 🔠 Indigenous Language Revitalization ​ 2012–2015: Ojibwe street sign campaign led by Hayden King and Susan Blight​ ​ Aimed to raise awareness of Indigenous heritage and reclaim public space​ ​ Inspired by the Idle No More movement​ ⚖️ From French to British Control ​ French surrendered to the British in 1760 (Montreal)​ ​ British formed peaceful relations with both Haudenosaunee and Mississauga​ ​ Indigenous peoples continued traditional lifeways in the Toronto region​ 🏛️ The American Revolution & Loyalist Migration (1775–1783) ​ Mississauga and Haudenosaunee fought as British allies​ ​ After U.S. independence, Loyalist refugees and Haudenosaunee settled north of the border (e.g., Grand River, Tyendinaga)​ 📜 “Purchasing” Indigenous Lands ​ Toronto seen as strategically valuable for settlers​ ​ Over 20 agreements made between colonists and the Mississauga​ ​ Colonists sought access for settlement and fur trade expansion​ 📘 The Toronto Purchase (1787 & 1805) ​ 1787: British paid £1,700 in cash and goods for a vast Toronto region​ ​ 1805: Revised deed expanded land claims; Mississauga chiefs received just 10 shillings for 250,880 acres​ ​ Boundaries stretched from Etobicoke Creek to Ashbridges Bay, 40 km north to Hwy 9​ 💰 2010 Land Claim Settlement ​ Mississaugas of the Credit First Nation reached settlement with Canada​ ​ Paid $144 million based on fair land value in 1805 adjusted to 2010​ ​ Marked one of the largest urban Indigenous land settlements in Canada​ 🧭 Williams Treaties & Land Rights ​ 2018: Seven Indigenous nations voted to accept a $1.1 billion settlement from federal and provincial governments​ ​ Related to the Williams Treaties of 1923, which were signed without full consent and pertained to land never officially surrendered​ ​ Lands had already been occupied by settlers, resource industries, and municipalities​ ​ Treaty area covered 12,944,400 acres, extending from southern Ontario up to Sudbury and east to Pembroke​ 🟩 Rouge Tract Land Claim (Submitted in 2015) ​ Based on the Gunshot Treaty of 1788, which included parts of the Rouge River Valley​ ​ Mississaugas of the Credit argue they never surrendered title to the Rouge Tract​ ​ A 2015 claim was submitted to Ontario and Canada for the return of these lands​ ​ Emphasizes unextinguished Aboriginal title​ ​ Part of ongoing efforts toward reconciliation and land restitution​ 🤝 Reconciliation Acknowledged “There is no way to undo the past, but with this historic settlement we can begin to write a new chapter together...”​ — Carolyn Bennett, Minister of Crown-Indigenous Relations (2018) ​ Emphasized treaty rights, rebuilding trust, and strengthening relationships​ ​ Recognizes the deep and continuing impacts of colonial agreements like the Williams Treaties​ 🏫 Indigenous Education & Cultural Revitalization Kapapamahchakwew – Wandering Spirit School ​ Formerly “Wandering Spirit Survival School” (est. 1976 by Elders Pauline Shirt and Vern Harper)​ ​ Adopted by TDSB in 1977​ ​ Located at 16 Phin Avenue, Toronto​ Educational Philosophy: ​ Centers Indigenous knowledge, languages, and cultural practices​ ​ Morning smudging ceremonies​ ​ Daily 40-minute culture/language classes​ ​ Teaches Ontario curriculum while embracing Anishinaabe worldview​ Growth: ​ Started as a JK–Grade 8 school​ ​ Expanded to high school from 2017 to 2020 (Grades 9–12)​ 📺 Resources and Media References ​ Heritage Minutes – Jacques Cartier​ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfKr-D5VDBU​ ​ A Sacred Trust – Mississaugas of the Credit​ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=be1vfELwshg​ ​ Rouge Tract Land Claim Overview​ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uhopm_wFjaM​ ​ Toronto’s First Nations School (The Agenda)​ https://youtu.be/KwXTolRN0ow​ Perfect — I’ll now create a review document for Lectures 2 & 3, using the same wording from your PDF, organized by key topics just like I did for Lecture 1. 📘 Lecture 2 – Canadian Cities & Urban Form 🌆 Rural vs. Urban (and the Fringe) ​ Cities are different from rural areas because they cannot satisfy all resident needs on their own​ ​ They must export goods and services to acquire products from outside​ ​ Hinterlands: cities depend on national and international connections​ ​ Canadian cities import agriculture, manufactured goods, labour​ 🏙️ Six Properties of Canadian Cities 1.​ Production – of jobs​ ○​ Economic production = more jobs = urban growth​ ○​ Shift from manufacturing → knowledge/service economy​ 2.​ Reproduction – of labour​ ○​ Includes:​ ​ Birth and child-rearing​ ​ Health care, education​ ​ Social services, family support​ ○​ Canada relies on immigration to sustain workforce​ 3.​ Proximity – for interaction​ ○​ Cities foster frequent interaction (people, businesses, institutions)​ ○​ Led to transit systems and suburban sprawl​ ○​ Communities without propinquity (Webber, 1964): social/economic networks, not physical closeness​ 4.​ Capitalization – space as capital​ ○​ Urban land is scarce → attracts investment​ ○​ Infrastructure is durable; change is difficult​ ○​ Conflict over land use (developers vs. public interest)​ ○​ Disinvestment in some neighbourhoods​ 5.​ Place – identity and attachment​  ○​ “Topophilia” (Yi-Fu Tuan, 1974): love of place​ ○​ Sense of place is subjective and varies by neighbourhood​ ○​ Space vs. Place: space = neutral; place = space with meaning​ 6.​ Urban Governance​ ○​ Management of shared urban infrastructure and services​ ○​ Calls for equal access to housing, transit, schools, etc.​ Continuing Lecture 2: Changing Urban Form, Suburbanization & Gentrification: 🏗️ Four Stages of Urban Form 1.​ Before 1945 – Industrial Era​ ○​ Rapid growth due to tech: electricity, steel-frame buildings, elevators​ ○​ Rise of zoning: regulation of lot size, height, open space, building type​ ○​ Zoning also led to segregation: e.g., Chinese in Vancouver, Jewish garment workers in Toronto​ ○​ Workers lived near factories in small lots, narrow alleys, and minimal green space​ ○​ Housing shifted from rental to homeownership with wages​ 2.​ Metropolitan Development (1945–1972)​ ○​ Introduction of rapid transit, underground metro​ ○​ Suburbs became municipalities to manage their growth​ ○​ Fordist Era: economic boom, big business, big government, big unions​  ○​ Formation of Metropolitan Toronto​ ○​ Expansion of housing, services (schools, hospitals), highways (Don Valley Parkway, Spadina Expressway)​ ○​ Planned Suburbs: funded by federal government, e.g., Don Mills​ ○​ Public institutions and amenities were extended into suburbs​ 3.​ Suburban Domination (1972–Present?)​ ○​ Expressways and decentralization of industry and jobs​ ○​ Suburban “downtowns” (e.g., North York Centre), office towers, big box stores​ ○​ Suburban infill: redeveloping underused suburban land​ ○​ More ethno-cultural diversity in suburbs (since 1990s)​ ○​ Polycentric metropolis (Pierce Lewis): multiple urban hubs, edge cities​ ○​ Splintering urbanism (Graham & Marvin): disconnected urban pockets​ ○​ Shopping malls grew in size and importance (1950s–1980s development strategies)​ ○​ Rise of power centres and big box retail (e.g., Walmart)​ 4.​ Gentrification​ ○​ Coined by Ruth Glass (1964), referring to working-class areas transformed into middle-class zones​ ○​ Gentrification stages (Phillip L. Clay):​ ​ Pioneers renovate​ ​ Realtors and speculators join​ ​ Media promotes area​ ​ Business-class moves in​  ○​ Neil Smith’s production theory: focus on profit motives and role of developers​ ○​ Types in Toronto:​ ​ Commercial (shopping & consumption)​ ​ Artist-led (creative class)​ ​ Municipal (driven by policy & by-laws)​ ○​ Example: Regent Park Revitalization – displaced Bangladeshi enclave​ 📘 Lecture 3 – Creating a Livable City 🌐 Conurbation & Sprawl ​ Toronto is part of a conurbation: multiple urban areas forming a region (e.g., Toronto-Hamilton corridor)​ ​ Leads to urban sprawl:​ ○​ Low-density growth > population growth​ ○​ Consumes more land, inefficient, harmful to environment​ ○​ Driven by cars, highways, and desire for space​ ○​ Impacts: pollution, health issues, farmland loss, infrastructure burden​ 🏙️ Livable City Planning ​ Managed through Official Plans (neighbourhood, city, region)​ ​ Zoning by-laws regulate land use​  ○​ Mixed-use encouraged​ ○​ NIMBYism = resistance to unwanted developments​ ​ Urban Growth Boundaries (UGBs): e.g., Greenbelt, Markham Foodbelt​ ○​ Portland, Oregon = example of effective UGB​ ○​ Controversy over 2022 Ontario Greenbelt development proposal​ Continuing Lecture 3 – Creating a Livable City, covering condos, decentralization, environmental challenges, and sustainable planning: 🏢 The Condo Boom & Downtown Reinvestment ​ 2001–2016: downtown Toronto grew by 83% in population​ ​ Condos became the new "entry-level" housing, especially for young professionals​ ​ Urban core revitalization:​ ○​ Repurposing industrial zones (e.g., Distillery District)​ ○​ Growth in the Creative Class (Richard Florida): artists, tech workers, designers, etc.​ ​ Public and private reinvestment led to:​ ○​ Improved transit​ ○​ Public space development (e.g., Harbourfront)​ ○​ Emphasis on urban lifestyle and walkability​ 🏬 Decentralization & the Suburban Challenge ​ Post-1970s: jobs, retail, and services moved from core to suburbs​ ​ Rise of edge cities: Scarborough Town Centre, Mississauga City Centre​ ​ Car dependence increased, transit coverage struggled to catch up​ ​ Inequity in access to services (e.g., health, education, transit) between suburbs and downtown​ ​ Suburbs face underinvestment in infrastructure, transit, and public space​ 🌍 Environmental Pressures & Livability ​ Air pollution: major health risks from vehicle emissions and industrial output​ ​ Smog Days: increased in early 2000s, tied to heat and pollution​ ​ Farmland loss: urban expansion pushes agricultural lands further out​ ​ Green infrastructure: parks, trees, ravines, green roofs promoted for climate resilience​ ​ Toronto’s ravine system and urban forest: vital assets under threat from development and climate change​ 🚇 Transportation & Equity ​ Transit deserts: areas lacking reliable, frequent public transit (often low-income or racialized communities)​ ​ Active transportation: walking, cycling increasingly promoted​ ​ Controversy over bike lanes, road diets, and transit expansion priorities​ ​ Metrolinx and TTC projects like the Eglinton Crosstown aim to improve accessibility​ 🌱 Sustainable & Just City Planning ​ Sustainability = balancing economic, environmental, and social goals​ ​ “Just sustainability” (Julian Agyeman): includes equity, inclusion, and access​ ​ Green planning must address:​ ○​ Who benefits from green space​ ○​ Gentrification pressures (e.g., High Line in NYC, Rail Deck Park in Toronto)​ ​ Urban planners advocate for inclusionary zoning, affordable housing, and participatory design​ Lecture 4 Urban Governance – Test Review - Lecture 4 ​ Urban governance is the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a city’s economic and social resources for development. ​ The Worldwide Governance Indicators project of the World Bank defines governance as: the traditions and institutions by which authority in a country is exercised. ​ Three primary components at any scale: ○​ Authority, ○​ Decision-making, ○​ Accountability. Good Governance Essentials​ (Gholipour, R. (2008). Good Governance and Proper Government Model. Tehran, Expediency Council, Strategic Research Center, Office of Science Development and Production., p. 116) Civil Society ​ The World Bank defines the term as:​ ​ “The wide array of non-governmental and not-for-profit organizations that have a presence in public life, expressing the interests and values of their members or others, based on ethical, cultural, political, scientific, religious or philanthropic considerations.”​ ​ Changing Civil Society in Canada ​ Traditional governance arrangements of civil society in Canada have been influenced by: ○​ The rise of populism (a belief in the power of “regular people”) ○​ A declining trust in governments ○​ The changing role of (and trust in) media as a neutral, fact-based intermediary ○​ The impact of technologies and globalization on both organizational form and engagement Characteristics of Good Urban Governance​ (Tirband, M. (2012). Good Urban Governance and Management. The First Urban Management Conference in the Horizon of 1404, Sharif University of Technology, p. 145) Toronto City Council ​ Has direct responsibility for the City’s services and indirectly oversees other major services like the Toronto Police Service, the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC), and the Toronto Public Library. ​ Toronto’s City Council was made up of the Mayor and 44 Councillors until 2018 – now there are 25 Councillors. ​ Each Councillor is elected by voters in one of 25 wards (a geographic area of the city). ​ The term of office for the Mayor and Council is four years. The Role of Council (City of Toronto Act, 2006) ​ Represents the public and considers the well-being of the City. ​ Develops and evaluates policies and programs of the City. ​ Determines services the City provides. ​ Ensures accountability and transparency of operations. ​ Maintains the financial integrity of the City. City of Toronto Committee Structure​ (Source: https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/accountability-operations-customer-service/get-involved- how-government-works/torontos-governance-system/) A Balanced Model of Governance ​ City Council ​ Public Service: The staff of the City and most agencies make up the public service. The public service provides objective, professional advice to Council and its agencies and corporations and implements Council’s decisions according to City policy, standards, and principles of effective public service. ​ The Public: The public play an essential role in ensuring the effectiveness of decision-making by identifying issues, providing input, participating in public meetings, surveys, and advisory bodies. Democracy vs. Dictatorship: Is the Line So Clear? ​ Democracy: A government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them, directly or indirectly, through a system of representation, usually involving periodically held free elections. ​ Dictatorship: A government organization or group in which absolute power is concentrated and who governs through autocratic rule, control, or leadership. Concepts of Governance & Empirical Evidence ​ Canada as a Keynesian Welfare State  ​ Creative Capital and the Creative Class ​ Neoliberalism ​ Production of City Public and Private Service/Space ​ Empirical Case Studies: ○​ “Common Sense” Revolution in Toronto ○​ Privatization in Toronto Welfare State & Keynesian Model ​ The welfare state is a concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of its citizens. ​ Keynesian Welfare State functions: ○​ Equal opportunity to participate in the labor market ○​ Provide a social safety net ○​ Support the formation of trade unions Neoliberalism ​ “Neoliberalism is a form of capitalism in which the state deregulates the economy, destroys unions, decreases taxes on the rich and corporations, and defunds public goods, while repressing and policing the poor, particularly people of color.” (Joseph Schwartz, Professor of Political Science at Temple University) Public and Private Service ​ Public services include water treatment, parks, libraries, transit, police, paramedics, childcare. ​ The privatization of public services often leads to reduced regulation and increased corporate control. Henri Lefebvre: The Spatial Triad ​ Representations of Space: Conceived Space (planned by architects, developers, and city officials). ​ Spaces of Representation: Lived Space (how people experience and alter urban spaces). ​ Spatial Practice: Perceived Space (contested space between how it’s planned vs. how it’s lived). Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) ​ “A public-private partnership (P3) is a long-term, performance-based approach to procuring public infrastructure.” ​ The Ontario Auditor General (2014) reviewed 74 P3 projects and found they cost the province $8 billion more than if publicly funded. Toronto on the World Stage ​ In 2024, Toronto ranked 12th globally in: ○​ Business activity ○​ Human capital ○​ Information exchange ○​ Cultural experience ○​ Political engagement Lecture 5 Income Inequalities in Toronto – Lecture 5 Review ​ Population in Canada and Ontario​ ○​ 3 in 5 Canadians live in Quebec or Ontario. ○​ In 2016, Ontario remained, by far, the most populous province in Canada with 13.4 million people, representing 38.3% of the Canadian population. ○​ Ontario’s population growth rate has decreased: Ontario's rate of population growth was below the national average for two consecutive intercensal periods, a first since the Second World War. ○​ Lower immigration levels to Ontario and interprovincial migration losses accounted for most of the recent slowdown. ​ Canada Needs Immigrants - Population Pyramids for Canada Over Time​ (Source: https://www.fin.gc.ca/pub/eficap-rebvpc/report-rapport-eng.asp)​ ​ Immigration Levels​ ○​ New report calls for raising Canada’s immigration rate. ○​ Raising admissions to 415,000 by 2030 would off-set aging population and spur economy, Conference Board of Canada says (May 15, 2018). ○​ In the 2023–2025 Immigration Levels Plan, Canada aims to welcome from 410,000 to 505,000 new permanent residents in 2023, from 430,000 to 542,500 in 2024, and from 442,500 to 550,000 in 2025.​ (Source: https://www.cicnews.com/2018/05/new-report-calls-for-raising-canada-immigratio n-rate-0510650.html#gs.UxC=1WU) ​ New Immigrants​ ○​ There is no clear definition of a “new immigrant.”  ○​ Some studies specify arrival in the last 5 years, others in the last 10 years. ○​ In this lecture, “New” immigrants = those who arrived between 2011 and 2016. ○​ “Recent” immigrants = those who arrived after 2002 (approximately 18 years ago). ​ Recent Immigration to Canada (2016)​ ○​ More than one in five Canadian residents (22%) are foreign-born (up from about 20% in 2006). ○​ From 2011 to 2016, Canada welcomed 1,212,075 new immigrants, 3.5% of Canada's total population in 2016. ○​ Immigrant Class: ​ 60.3% admitted as Economic Class (about 20% more than those who came in the 1980s). ​ 26.8% admitted as Family Class (less than 1980s). ​ 11.6% admitted as Refugees (less than 1980s). ○​ Source Countries: ​ Asia (62%) ​ Africa (13%)​ (Source: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/171025/dq171025b-eng.pdf) ​ Economic Class​ ○​ A category of immigrants selected for their skills and ability to contribute to Canada’s economy. ○​ Includes skilled workers, provincial and territorial nominees, business immigrants, Quebec skilled workers, and Canadian Experience Class members. ​ Family Class​ ○​ Includes any family members sponsored to come to Canada by a Canadian citizen or permanent resident. ○​ Part of Canada’s long-standing “family reunification” policy. ​ Refugee​ ○​ Claimant: A person who has applied for refugee protection status while in Canada and is waiting for a decision on his/her claim from the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. ○​ Protected Person: A person determined to be a Convention refugee or in need of protection in Canada. ​ Immigration to Canada under the 3 Classes (1980-2016)​ ​ Where do Immigrants Settle?​ ○​ Destination Cities: Toronto, Vancouver, and Montréal (TVM) are still the primary locations for over half of all immigrants and recent immigrants to Canada.  ○​ Increasing numbers of immigrants are settling in the Prairies and Atlantic provinces. ○​ Between 2000 and 2010, the number of new immigrants intending to settle in Toronto declined. ​ Provincial Nominee Programs (PNPs)​ ○​ Allow Canadian provinces and territories to nominate individuals who wish to immigrate to Canada and settle in a particular province. ○​ PNPs increased the number of new immigrants sponsored from less than 1% in 2000 to 13% in 2010 across Canada, with the greatest increase in the western provinces. ​ Low-Income Cut-Off (LICO-AT)​ ○​ An income threshold below which families or persons would likely devote a larger share of their after-tax income to necessities like food, shelter, and clothing. ○​ More specifically, these thresholds represent income levels at which families spend 20% or more of their after-tax income than the average family on these necessities. ​ The Employment Equity Act (1995)​ ○​ The purpose of this Act is to achieve equality in the workplace so that no person shall be denied employment opportunities or benefits for reasons unrelated to ability. ○​ To correct employment disadvantages experienced by women, Aboriginal peoples, persons with disabilities, and visible minorities. ​ According to Human Capital Theory…​ ○​ When economic capital is invested in education, it is with an expectation that it will increase income. ○​ More education = more income (but is this always true?) ​ The Canadian Labour Market: A Statistical Overview​ ○​ Increase in service sector (retail, health care, education, public administration). ○​ Decline in goods-producing services (construction, manufacturing, agriculture, oil, gas). ○​ Manufacturing now comprises only 12% of all employment. ​ Employment & Unemployment by Census Metropolitan Areas (CMAs)​ ○​ Highest employment rates: Calgary (74%), Edmonton, Ottawa, Winnipeg, Halifax, Kitchener (>65%). ○​ Highest unemployment rates: Montreal, St. Catharines, Toronto. ​ Unemployment vs. Underemployment​ ○​ Unemployment: When a person actively seeking work cannot find a job.  ○​ Underemployment: When workers are overqualified for their jobs or working part-time but want full-time work. ​ Who Works in Which Sector?​ ○​ Men: Over 25% in construction, trades, transport, equipment operation. ○​ Women: 29% in sales/services, 27% in business/finance/administration. ​ Income & Earning Gaps​ ○​ Canadian-born workers earn more than immigrants. ○​ Median weekly earnings (2016): ​ Canadian-born men: $1009 ​ Immigrant men: $775 ​ Canadian-born women: $812 ​ Immigrant women: $598​ (Source: Statistics Canada 2016) ​ David Hulchanski’s "Three Cities" of Toronto​ ○​ City #1: Predominantly high-income, central areas near subway lines. ○​ City #2: Middle-income, incomes have remained stable. ○​ City #3: Low-income, mainly in the northeast and northwest, incomes have fallen. ​ Labour Discrimination in Canada​ ○​ Historical discrimination against Chinese, Japanese, Black, Indigenous, and Southern Europeans. ○​ Today, discrimination takes new forms, including non-recognition of foreign credentials. ​ Growing Income Inequalities in Peel Region​ ○​ In 1980, only 2% of Peel’s neighbourhoods were low-income; by 2015, it was 52%. ○​ Extreme decline in middle-income neighbourhoods, reflecting a disappearing middle class. Lecture 6 Lecture 6: Residential Segregation and Ethnic Neighbourhoods Lecture Overview ​ Where you live – why does it matter? ​ Review of some concepts underlying residential segregation within urban areas ​ Ethnic residential segregation ​ Spatial expressions of ethnic residential segregation ​ “Good” and “Bad” aspects of ethnic residential segregation Where would you like to live? ​ Downtown (old City of Toronto) ​ The Inner Suburbs ​ The Outer Suburbs ​ Where “the action” is ​ A quiet neighbourhood ​ Near people “like you”, however that is defined ​ Close to something Neighbourhood Types ​ Ethnic based – e.g., Little Italy, Chinatown ​ Lifestyle based – e.g., Yuppies, “Yonge & Eligibles” ​ Built form based – e.g., suburbs, Waterfront Condos ​ Historical based – Yorkville, Weston, The Annex ​ Planners like to create neighbourhoods where they perhaps once existed (historical). ​ BIAs (Business Improvement Areas) like to invent them, whether they existed or not (commercial/retail/lifestyle). Why does it matter where people live? Where people live is an OUTCOME of various ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL, AND POLITICAL factors: 1.​ How did they migrate to Canada? Did anyone help them (e.g., immigration agency, family members)? 2.​ What kind of housing is available and where?  3.​ What is their economic situation? 4.​ What is the attitude of the receiving society toward this PARTICULAR GROUP of newcomers? Key Concepts in Residential Segregation Race, Ethnicity, and Racialisation ​ Ideas about ‘Race’ and ‘Ethnicity’ are among the most powerful sources of human identity: “who am I”... ​ Although debatable, these categories are often taken for granted. ​ These notions are social constructs, products of specific historical and geographical forces, rather than biologically given ideas. Race ​ The term “Race” came into the English language from French and Italian roots in the 18th century. ​ Defining people by “race” served the interests of mercantile and industrial capitalism, particularly in Britain and in the British colonies. ​ This process of “othering” was used to legitimize the exploitation of people and colonization worldwide. ​ Over time, it spread to Australia, Canada, and other white-settler colonies abroad. ​ Examples of racial categories: ‘White’ / ‘Black’ / ‘Chinese’ / ‘South Asian’ Ethnicity ​ Greek Term: ‘Ethno’ means distinct people. ​ A way individuals define their personal identity and a type of social stratification that emerges when people form groups based on their real or perceived origins and/or ‘culture’. ​ Example: Canadians of Irish origin. Identity ​ Definition of Identity: The elements that make up the view that people take of themselves (Knox and Pinch 2000). ​ “Who am I” is shaped by race, gender, economic and social class, political views, religious beliefs, sexual orientation, ability, etc. ​ Identity is FLUID (especially Ethnic Identity). ​ Types of Identity: ○​ Primordial (nation, language, origin – seen as fixed once constructed). ○​ Institutional (externally imposed by institutions like Statistics Canada). ○​ Situational (identity is unstable and shifts depending on discourse). Ethnic Identity ​ A socio-psychological phenomenon derived from membership to an ethnic group (Isajiw 1990). ​ According to Heibert (2000), factors influencing ethnic identity development: ○​ Shared historical memory (e.g., colonization) ○​ Racialisation ○​ External identification (e.g., “boat people”) ○​ Internalization of externally assigned identities (e.g., “South Asian”, “Black”) Residential Segregation and Ethnic Neighbourhoods Defining Residential Segregation Residential segregation occurs when members of a minority group are not uniformly distributed across residential space relative to the rest of the population. Measuring Segregation ​ Segregation Index (SI): The extent to which the Greeks are segregated from the rest of the population in Toronto. ​ Index of Dissimilarity (ID): The extent to which Greeks are segregated from each of the non-Greek ‘ethnic’ groups in Toronto. Why Do Ethnic Minorities Segregate? ​ Defense ​ Support ​ Cultural Preservation ​ Action/Lobbying ​ All by “Choice”? Types of Ethnic Residential Segregation Spatial Expressions of Ethnic Residential Segregation ​ Colonies ​ Enclaves ​ Ethnoburbs ​ Ghettos Colonies ​ Port of entry for an immigrant group. ​ Transitional space that often leads to cultural assimilation and spatial dispersal. ​ Example: Polish Colony in Roncesvalles, Toronto. Enclaves ​ Immigrants settle by necessity or choice. ​ More permanent than colonies. ​ Predominantly low-income area. ​ Example: Bangladeshi Enclave in Victoria Park, Toronto. Factors necessary for enclave development: 1.​ High volume of immigration from a given area.  2.​ Sustained flow of immigrants over time. 3.​ Residential concentration. 4.​ Commercial/retail concentration. Ethnoburbs ​ Relatively affluent area where immigrants settle by choice. ​ Usually suburban. ​ Example: Chinese Ethnic Community in Markham. ​ Examples of ethnoburbs: ○​ Vaughan - Woodbridge (Italian) ○​ Markham (Chinese and Tamil) ○​ Mississauga and Brampton (Indian and Pakistani) Ghettos ​ Ethnic or immigrant groups settle by constraint. ​ Permanent concentrations caused by institutional discrimination through housing markets. ​ Example: Irish and African-American Ghettos in Chicago. Effects of Residential Segregation “Good” Effects of Segregation ​ Ethnic Capital (ethnic networks, ethnic concentration). ​ Economic Opportunities (job market knowledge, including informal sector). ​ Safety. ​ Social Cohesion (familial bonds, neighboring practices). ​ Retention of Cultural Heritage (language, cultural practices). “Bad” Effects of Segregation ​ More poverty in some neighbourhoods.  ​ Poor neighbourhoods more vulnerable to economic downturns. ​ Limited knowledge within ethnic networks. Ethnically Mixed Neighbourhoods ​ The Ward (past) – historical settlement area for immigrants. ​ Rexdale-Kipling (present) – ethnically mixed, somewhat economically mixed, but limited “neighboring.” Here is a thorough review of Slides 44 to 56, maintaining the exact wording from the slides. This will help you prepare for your test by covering all key topics systematically. Continuation of Lecture 6: Residential Segregation and Ethnic Neighbourhoods Spatial Expressions of Ethnic Residential Segregation (continued) Enclaves ​ Immigrants have settled by necessity and/or by choice. ​ Has a particular territorial configuration and is more permanent. ​ Predominantly low-income area. ​ Example: Bangladeshi Enclave in Victoria Park, Toronto. Factors necessary for ethnic enclave development: 1.​ A high volume of immigration from a given area. 2.​ A sustained flow of immigrants over time. 3.​ Residential concentration. 4.​ Commercial/Retail concentration. Ethnic Enclaves ​ Areas with a concentration of a particular ethnic group (residential) and a cluster of commercial and institutional activities. Established Ethnic Enclaves in Toronto: ​ Jewish people – Bathurst St. ​ Chinese people – Spadina Ave. ​ Greek people – The Danforth ​ Italian people – College Street Emerging Ethnic Enclaves in Toronto: ​ Filipino people – Little Manila (Wilson Ave. & Bathurst St.) ​ Korean people – Finch & Yonge ​ Iranian people – Yonge, just south of Finch Institutional Completeness (Raymond Breton, 1964) ​ Institutional completeness: The degree to which an ethnic community can provide all necessary services required by its members. ​ The growth of the population of an ethnic group in an area reinforces the institutional completeness of the enclave. Selling Ethnic Enclaves: Real Estate ​ Example: Little Italy Toronto, Possibly The Best Little Italy ​ Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ukx5xoKK2MY Ethnoburb ​ Relatively affluent area where immigrants have settled by choice. ​ Usually a suburban location. ​ Example: Chinese Ethnic Community in Markham. ​ Image Source:  ○​ http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c ommons/thumb/2/25/Pacificmall.jpg/250px-Pacificmall.jpg ○​ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Mall Ethnoburbs ​ Ethnic areas are moving to the outer suburbs. ​ These communities have substantial external connections to the globalized mainstream economy, leading to higher socioeconomic levels of residents. ​ An ethnoburb functions as a social hub and a place where immigrants may work and do business within their own networks. ​ First coined in 1997 by Dr. Wei Li. Examples of Ethnoburbs in the Greater Toronto Area: ​ Vaughan - Woodbridge (Italian). ​ Markham (Chinese and Tamil). ​ Mississauga and Brampton (Indian and Pakistani). Ethnoburbs in the U.S. Suburbs ​ Interview with Dr. Wei Li ​ Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YOQNjIZh154 An Almost Sectoral Pattern… ​ Spatially, the outward expansion of ethnic enclaves has a somewhat sectoral pattern. ​ Image Source: ○​ https://pranilblogs.wordpress.com/2016/10/08/sector-model-a-brief-analysis/ Markham Ethnoburb ​ Markham has become a major Chinese ethnoburb, replacing Chinatown as the central hub for Chinese immigrants. ​ This ethnoburb offers strong institutional completeness with Chinese-owned businesses, cultural centers, and religious institutions. Sequent-Occupance ​ The notion that successive societies leave their cultural imprints on a place, each contributing to the cumulative cultural landscape. ​ We can see this at a local scale in Toronto, in various ethnic enclaves. ​ Example: Greektown along Danforth Avenue, between Chester Avenue and Dewhurst Blvd., in East Toronto. Greektown on the Danforth ​ Many Greek residents have moved out, but old churches and retail outlets remain. ​ At the “Taste of the Danforth” festival, Greek food prevails, but there are numerous options including Thai, Chinese, Brazilian, Indian, and Japanese, reflecting the change in the cultural composition of the neighbourhood over time. ​ Image Source: ○​ http://greekamericangirl.com/a-greek-rep-for-torontos-greektown-mary-fregedakis / The Layering of Ethnic Neighbourhoods Over Time ​ Canada is a “cultural mosaic,” where retention of ethnic culture is encouraged through the policy of multiculturalism. ​ This has resulted in the layering of built forms from successive groups of immigrants over time, particularly in the older parts of Toronto. ​ Experiencing Canada’s cultural mosaic — Heritage walking tours ○​ https://www.heritagetoronto.org/programs/tours/ Ghetto ​ Ethnic or immigrant groups have settled by constraint. ​ These concentrations are permanent. ​ Often caused by institutional discrimination through the operation of housing markets. ​ Example: Irish and African-American Ghettos in Chicago.  ​ Image Source: ○​ http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://mccammon.ucsd.edu/~dminh/ny philly/images/nyp-15.jpg Segregation and “Generation” ​ The Expected Norm… ○​ When immigrants first migrate to a new country, they segregate due to a variety of social, economic, and cultural reasons. ○​ Over time, as they get acculturated, they disperse spatially. Globurbia ​ Suburban place-making amidst diversity Dr. Zhixi Cecilia Zhuang, Interim Graduate Program Director and Associate Professor, School of Urban and Regional Planning, Toronto Metropolitan University ​ “Globurbia”: diverse suburbs with global connections ○​ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ODBnO0v_hpk Lecture 7 - PART 1: Homelessness and Condo Development Canada’s Housing Market: Are we in A BUBBLE? ​ A housing bubble​ ​ Rapidly rising housing prices fueled by demand, speculation, and exuberant spending​ ​ Usually start with an increase in demand, in the face of limited supply​ ​ Speculators pour money into the market, further driving up demand​ ​ At some point, demand decreases or stagnates at the same time supply increases, resulting in a sharp drop in prices—and the bubble bursts​ Concepts ​ Housing Career​ ​ HOUSING CAREER : Just Like a “career” in the labour market​ ​ How housing consumption changes as you move through life​ ​ Can move upwards, downwards, sideways​ ​ “PROGRESSIVE” Rental to Ownership​ ​ Towards ideal dwelling and neighbourhood​ ​ What is it?​ Housing: Some Standardized Definitions ​ Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC)​ ​ 3 components of appropriate housing:​ ○​ Adequacy​ ○​ Suitability​ ○​ Affordability​ ​ IF ANY OF THESE CONDITIONS are not met, the individual/household is in Core Housing Need​ 3 Components of Appropriate Housing ​ Adequacy: dwellings in need of repair​ ​ Suitability: size of dwelling -- a child of a different gender must have their own bedroom, above the age of 8​ ○​ National Occupancy Standards – In 2006, over 17% of Canadians were living in overcrowded conditions​ ​ Affordability: shelter costs (rent and mortgage) should remain < 30% before-tax income​ CMHC Highlights: Canada 2011 ​ Vancouver and Toronto had the highest incidences of core housing need​ ​ 42% of all households in core housing need lived in Toronto (20%), Montréal (13%) or Vancouver (9%)​ CMHC Highlights: Canada 2021 ​ 10% of Canadian households were in core housing need​ ​ 20% of renters in core housing need, 89% facing affordability issues​ ​ 14% of immigrant-led households in core housing need​ ○​ 16% for recent immigrant-led households​ ​ 19% of refugee-led households in core housing need​ ○​ 33% for recent refugee-led households​ Vacancy Rate ​ The percentage of all available rental units that are vacant or unoccupied at a given time​ Toronto’s Housing Market ​ Extremely high rents since mid-1980s​ ​ Immigrants face difficulty finding affordable, adequate, and suitable housing​ ​ 30% of Canadian immigrants settle in Toronto​ ​ 3 types: Home ownership (60%), Public rental (11%), Private rental (29%)​ ​ Very low vacancy rates​ ​ Rent control removed in 1998​ ​ Public housing (1950–1970): low-income, RGI​ ​ Social housing (1970s+): mix subsidized and market​  ​ By 1995: no new funding = long waiting lists​ Residential Tenancies Act 2006 ​ Protects tenants from unlawful rent increases/evictions​ ​ Regulates residential rents​ ​ Balances landlord/tenant rights​ ​ Enables dispute adjudication and informal resolutions​ Recent Changes to the Act ​ Rent control expanded to most private rental units (2017)​ ​ Annual rent increases cannot exceed the government’s guideline​ ​ 2017: 1.5% increase cap​ ​ 2023: 2.5% increase cap​ Some Social Housing Data for Toronto (Note: Not elaborated in the slides – check source if needed) Defining "Homelessness" in Canada ​ Broad term, no official definition​  ​ Considered across two main factors:​ ○​ Specific housing situation​ ○​ Duration/frequency of homelessness​ Types of Housing Situations ​ ABSOLUTE: Street or shelter​ ​ RELATIVE: Substandard or at-risk housing​ ​ HIDDEN: No fixed address, couch surfing, institutions​ Duration/Frequency ​ CHRONIC: Long-term, often linked to illness/addiction​ ​ CYCLICAL: Reoccurring, linked to life events​ ​ TEMPORARY: Short-term, often crisis-related​ Who is Homeless and Why? ​ Older adults with mental illness​ ​ Women​ ​ Youth​ ​ Immigrants and refugees (mostly hidden)​ Ontario Safe Streets Act ​ Enacted to prevent intimidation in public spaces​ ​ Targets panhandling and “aggressive” street activities​ ​ Criticized for targeting the homeless indirectly​ ​ Based on similar U.S. legislation aimed at criminalizing homelessness​ Causes of Homelessness (Supply Side) ​ Low rental vacancies​ ​ Unaffordable rent due to removal of rent control​ Homelessness: The Resistive Politics of Movement and Flow ​ Homeless use movement as resistance​ ​ Constant conflict with authorities, shopkeepers, etc.​ ​ Deleuze & Guattari: Nomadic movement as political defiance in segmented societies​ Tent City ​ Located in downtown Toronto, housed 140 homeless​ ​ Evicted in 2002 by Home Depot​ ​ Over 100 got housing through a rent supplement pilot​  ​ Largest homeless-led civil disobedience since the 1930s​ Here’s your printable study sheet for Lecture 7 – Part 2: Homelessness and Condo Development, with bullet points copied exactly as written in the PowerPoint: Lecture 7 – Part 2: Homelessness and Condo Development Homeless out of Nathan Phillips Square (2012) ​ Mayor Ford called for the “removal” of homeless people sleeping in the square, but did not say where they should go​ ​ The number of homeless sleeping in the square had skyrocketed despite the fact it is banned by a city bylaws (to between 50 to 100 people)​ Tent City under Gardiner Expressway ​ August 07, 2018​ ​ https://toronto.citynews.ca/video/2018/08/07/tent-city-back-under-gardiner-expressway/​ New Condos Downtown 2023 listing New Condos in the North York (near subway stations) 2023 listings New Condos in the Scarborough (near the lake) 2023 listings New Rental Units 2023 listings Recent Rental Housing Market Trends - Toronto ​ 2015/2016: CMHC​ ​ Average increase in rent of two-bedroom units (suitable for small families): 3.3% (up from 2.7% in 2014)​ ​ Demand for rental accommodation held steady​ ​ Rental demand increased in high-end segments of the market such as newer purpose-built structures and newly completed condominium rentals​ ​ Most of the growth in the GTA’s rental housing stock came in the form of rented condominiums​ Rented Condominiums ​ The number of condominiums being rented out increased from 92,257 units in 2014 to 105,317 units in 2015 (a 10,000 unit increase in just one year!)​ ​ Who is it for? Where?​ Examples of Rental Listings ​ $5800 / 3br – 3 Bedroom Condo in the Heart of Financial District in 2015​ ​ $3000 / 2br – 1300ft² “Fabulous Condominium In Superior Location Of Toronto on Bay St” (717 Bay St) in 2015​  ​ “This 2-Storey Loft Boasts 18Ft Soaring Ceilings And Is Absolutely Perfect For The Sophisticated Professional Or Executive Bachelor. With Over 1100Sqft Of Living Space, This Is An Entertainer's Paradise With An Open Concept Kitchen And Granite Countertops. This Is Your Unique Opportunity To Rent In An Unbeatable Downtown Location! Steps To Union Station, Financial District, Yonge St, St Lawrence Market, Shopping, Restaurants, Hwy Access. Won't Last!”​ Rental Housing Disadvantage ​ What are some of the indicators of disadvantage?​ ○​ High rent (more than 30% of before tax income) – Affordability​ ○​ Dwelling is in a state of disrepair, tenants continue to live under unacceptable conditions – Adequacy​ ○​ Tenants’ rights and needs are not met, e.g., safety precautions are ignored – Adequacy​ ○​ Overcrowding – Suitability​ ​ Where are the most disadvantaged located geographically?​ ​ Who is the most disadvantaged?​ ​ Defining Neighbourhoods in Relation to Rental Housing Stress in Urban Canada​ ○​ http://neighbourhoodchange.ca/documents/2015/05/ncrp-rental-housing-disadva ntage-hulchanski-may-2015.pdf​ Housing Experiences of Immigrants and Refugees in Canada ​ 1990s onward, many studies have been conducted in Canada on the housing conditions of different immigrant groups​  ​ Immigrants and Refugees do not have the same experiences​ Refugees compared to Immigrants ​ Immigrants as a group are better housed than Refugees​ ​ Compared to immigrants, refugees, especially those with low economic and human capital, face more difficulties in finding full-time employment; therefore they generally end up unemployed, under-employed, or working part-time​ ​ Many are also on social assistance​ ​ As a result of their level and source of income, the refugees are severely discriminated against in Canadian housing markets​ ​ Most refugees live in costly rental apartments, in inadequate and unsuitable dwellings​ Immigrants ​ Among immigrants there is no common experience​ ​ Differences between immigrant groups​ Some Inter-Immigrant Group Differences Housing Situation by ‘Race’ ​ Visible minority groups are primarily renters within the first 5 years of their arrival in Canada​ ​ They also face more discrimination in the housing market from private landlords​  ​ For example, most African Canadians take longer to own homes in Canada (Calgary, Toronto)​ ​ Studies on Afghanistanis in Kitchener-Waterloo area, and on Bangladeshis in Toronto have shown similar results​ ​ Non-visible minority groups tend to buy homes quicker than visible minorities​ Tenure by Immigrant Class ​ People from Hong Kong or Taiwan often buy homes as soon as they arrive in Canada​ ○​ These are the Business Class immigrants​ ​ Most skilled workers (Independent Immigrants) reportedly face issues of affordability and are overwhelmingly concentrated in high rise rental apartments​ ​ They also live in overcrowded spaces​ Housing Situation by Time of Arrival ​ The rate of homeownership among immigrant groups also differ based on:​ ○​ Their time of arrival in Canada​ ○​ Length of stay in Canada​ ○​ Employment situation​ ○​ Other social conditions​ Why is Housing so important? ​ A Decent & Humane Housing System must couple shelter with...​  ○​ security, warmth, peace and independence​ ○​ living space and space to grow​ ○​ nurturing and refuge and support​ ○​ independence and protection​ ○​ access to work and culture​ ○​ good relations with neighbours and strangers​ ○​ — Peter Marcuse (1987), p. 232​ House as Home… ​ Highrise / One Millionth Tower​ ○​ https://documentary.net/video/one-millionth-tower-high-rise-interactive-document ary/​ ○​ Witness the power of imagination transform a dilapidated high-rise neighbourhood in this six-minute documentary that unfolds in a virtual landscape​ Here’s your printable study sheet for Lecture 8 – Ethnic Retailing, with all bullet points and phrasing copied exactly from the PowerPoint: Lecture 8: Ethnic Retailing Toronto: A City of Ethnic Food? ​ Travel the World by Streetcar: A Guide to Toronto's Ethnic Neighborhoods​  ○​ https://gomadnomad.com/2014/08/27/guide-toronto-ethnic-neighborhoods/​ Concepts ​ Ethnic Economy: Employers and employees are of same ethnicity​ ​ Employment Niche: clustering in a certain economic sector as workers, usually more than half of the group (but this has been now challenged)​ ​ Entrepreneurial Niche: clustering in a certain economic sector as owners​ ​ Enclave Economy: Not only clustering in a certain economic sector as owners and workers, but also geographically located in the enclave​ ​ Middleman Minorities: entrepreneurs who operate their businesses in poor minority neighbourhoods, for example Korean business owners in areas where there is a concentration of Black people​ Ethnic Enclave ​ Areas with a concentration of a particular ethnic group (residential) and a cluster of commercial and institution activities​ ​ Older:​ ○​ Jew people started on Bathurst St.​ ○​ Chinese people on Spadina Ave.​ ○​ Greek people on the Danforth​ ○​ Italian people on College Street​ ​ Emerging:​ ○​ Filipino people in Little Manila at Wilson Ave. and Bathurst St.​  ○​ Korean people at Finch and Yonge​ ○​ Iranian people on Yonge, just south of Finch​ Ethnic Retail Spaces ​ Located in major cities​ ​ Most are located adjacent to specific ethnic communities​ ​ Some are located on low-cost industrial lands​ ​ Some large, multi-store chains are located in premium locations, and anchor retail strips​ Geographical Process: Invasion-Succession Model ​ A model of change used in urban ecology to represent the effects of immigration on the social structure of an urban area​ ​ Invasion and succession involve a chain reaction, with each preceding immigrant wave moving outwards and being succeeded by more recent, poorer immigrants​ ​ This model saw immigrant enclaves as transitional stages on the road to eventual integration in the larger mainstream society​ ​ Traditional immigrant reception areas are transforming over time, as older groups move out (as they become more affluent), and new groups move in​ ​ They are also becoming more diversified​ Institutional Completeness (Raymond Breton, 1964)  ​ Institutional completeness: the degree to which an ethnic community can provide all the necessary services required by its members​ ​ The growth of the population of an ethnic group in an area reinforces the institutional completeness of the enclave​ Ethnic Stores in Toronto (Wang and Chen 2016) 11 Best Cultural Grocery Stores You Must Go To In Toronto ​ Yummy Market (Russian)​ ​ Starsky (Polish)​ ​ Philippine Oriental Food Market (Filipino)​ ​ Adonis (Arabic)​ ​ Cataldi Fresh Market (Italian)​ ​ Top Food Supermarket (Chinese)​ ​ BJ Supermarket (Indian)​ ​ Pat Mart (Korean)​ ​ Kostas Meat Market (Greek)​ ​ Nosso Talho (Portuguese)​ ​ Emporium Latino (Latin)​ https://www.narcity.com/ca/on/toronto/best-of-to/11-best-cultural-grocery-stores-you-mus t-go-to-in-toronto​ Ethnic Enclaves as Tourist Destinations  ​ People visit Chinatown in Downtown Toronto for an immersive experience, particularly in the summer time​ ​ Retail venues sell fresh food items, street foods, clothing, and tourist souvenirs​ ​ Many restaurants throughout the GTA represent the diversity of Chinese communities in Toronto (e.g., Northern Mainland, Hong Kong)​ Downtown “Chinatowns” ​ Chinatown in Victoria, BC is the oldest Chinatown in Canada (second oldest in North America after San Francisco’s)​ ​ It formed with the migration of miners from California when gold was discovered in the Fraser Canyon in 1858​ ​ Toronto's Chinatown first appeared during the 1890s with the migration of American Chinese, extending along Dundas St. E. and Spadina Ave.​ ​ East Chinatown is located at the intersection of Broadview Ave. and Gerrard St.​ ​ Now there are multiple Chinese ethnic enclaves throughout the GTA​ Scarborough-Agincourt: An Inner Suburbs Chinatown ​ Development centred around Agincourt's Dragon Centre Mall in the 1980s to the early 1990s (Sheppard Ave. and Midland Ave.)​ ​ There are now 20 Chinese malls and retail strips in the Agincourt area​ ​ Since 2000, the Agincourt Chinese population is spread thinly, as people are leaving for communities north of Toronto​ ​ Some development in North York as well, around Finch-Leslie Square​ Markham: An Outer Suburbs Chinatown ​ Markham itself has the largest proportion of Chinese among all the GTA municipalities​ ​ The most well-known Chinese mall in Markham is the Pacific Mall, at Kennedy Rd. and Steeles Ave. E.​ ​ Combined with two neighbouring malls, Market Village Mall and Splendid China Mall, to form the largest Chinese shopping complex in North America, with over 700 stores between the three malls​ ​ In close proximity, at Steeles Ave. E. and Warden Ave., there is the New Century Plaza mall, and a half-block away there is a plaza of Chinese shops anchored by a T & T Supermarket​ ​ Other smaller Chinatowns have emerged in Richmond Hill and Mississauga​ Little India Enclaves ​ The first Indo-Canadian immigrants from Punjab, India settled in Vancouver in the 1890s, and created Little Punjab​ ​ In Toronto, Little India is home to the Gerrard India Bazaar, once North America’s largest South Asian ethnic market (Gerrard St. E., between Coxwell Ave. and Greenwood Ave.)​ ​ Now known as Little Pakistan or Little Lahore​ ​ Albion Islington Square (1970s onward): for several decades this area had the largest concentration of South Asian retail venues and businesses in North America​ ​ Mississauga and Brampton (mid-1980s onward)​ Recent Trends of Ethnic Chinese Retailing in Metropolitan Toronto (Wang, et al. 2013)  ​ Since the late 1990s, ethnic Chinese retailing in the Toronto market has continued to expand​ ​ Three key trends are identified:​ 1.​ Resurgence of food retailing and growth of modern large-scale supermarkets​ 2.​ Shift from clusters of exclusive ethnic retailing to a mix with mainstream businesses​ 3.​ Development of a new corridor of ethnic Chinese retailing forming the geographical center of an emerging Chinese-dominated ethnoburb​ The Fusion of Ethnic and Mainstream Retailing ​ Chinese shopping centers developed in the 1990s were clusters of Chinese businesses within enclosed malls, serving mainly a Chinese clientele, and the average store size is small​ ​ Post-2000, new developments mix ethnic retailing with mainstream commercial activity​ ​ Big box retailers serve as co-anchors in new plazas​ ​ Examples:​ ○​ Warden Center​ ○​ Silver Star Center​ ○​ Milliken Crossing Plaza​ T&T Supermarkets in the Toronto CMA (Wang, et al. 2013) Municipality Type of Location Open Year Vaughan Mainstream shopping centre 2002 Markham Mixed Chinese & mainstream business 2004 plaza Scarborough Mixed Chinese & mainstream business 2005 plaza Mississauga Mixed Chinese & mainstream business 2006 plaza Toronto Free-standing 2007 ​ ​ Founded in Vancouver in 1993 by Cindy Lee, an immigrant from Taiwan​ ​ More than 30 stores in Ontario, B.C., Alberta and Quebec, with 8 in the GTA​ ​ Acquired by Loblaw in July 2009 – buy rather than build​ Conclusions from Wang et al. 2013 ​ New generation of Chinese entrepreneurs possess more business capital, trade knowledge, social networks, and transnational linkages​ ​ No longer rely on inner-city Chinatown for a protected market​ ​ Business operations are no longer confined to locations of ‘limited competition’​ A Blending of Product Types in Retail Venues ​ Many ethnic food stores now carry a wider variety of mainstream goods​ ​ Some mainstream supermarkets have added “international foods” sections (e.g., Walmart, Real Canadian Superstore)​ ​ Wider access to Halal products​ Globalization and Ethnic Retailing ​ Increased globalization and ‘ethnic chic’ blur definitions of ‘ethnic’ and ‘mainstream’​ ​ In the 1960s, outdoor cafes were considered ‘ethnic’​ ​ The first sidewalk cafe in Toronto was established in Corso Italia in the 1960s, helped by city councillor Joseph Piccininni​ A Growing Diversity of Consumers ​ People who are not members of the principal ethnic group that an ethnic store was created to serve also shop there for several reasons:​ ○​ Wider variety of products (especially fruits and vegetables)​ ○​ Convenience factor (close proximity)​ ○​ Exposure to other cultures​ Early Emergence of Ethnic Retail Enclaves as Unplanned ‘Retail Areas’ ​ Retail stores locate together based on individual decisions, not collective planning​ ​ Accessible by car, public transit, and walking​ ​ Often suffer from poor parking, limited services, originally designed to service local community​ ​ Business Improvement Areas (BIA) have emerged to coordinate planning, beautify, and attract non-local consumers​ Toronto’s BIAs ​ Toronto has 83 BIAs that are a dynamic and influential part of the city's economic and cultural fabric​ ​ The world’s first BIA was started in Toronto in 1970​ ​ Toronto has the most BIAs of any city in the world​ Toronto’s BIAs ​ Over 7.4 million people attend 160+ events and festivals run by BIAs each year​ ​ For every $1 the city invests, $10 in private sector funding is generated​ ​ In 2013: $3 million investment = $30 million in BIA spending​ ​ 40th Anniversary of BIAs: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CtHtOHzb8tw​ BIA Map and List ​ There are presently 83 BIAs in Toronto​ ​ https://www.toronto.ca/business-economy/business-operation-growth/business-improve ment-areas/bia-list/​ Commodification of Ethnicity ​ Business Improvement Areas (BIAs)​ ​ Ethnic pride vs. commodification​ ​ Essentializing an ethnic group or promoting awareness?​  ​ Essentializing = attributing “essential” characteristics to culturally-defined groups → stereotyping​ Gentrification and the Destruction of Commercial and Retail Enclaves ​ Regent Park Revitalization Project​ ​ A Bangladeshi enclave​ ​ Residents relocated during construction​ ​ Businesses and retail outlets moved, or went out of business​ ​ When residents return, their enclave is gone​ ​ Komakech, M.D.C., and S. F. Jackson (2016)​ Got it! Here's a review outline with all the bullet points copied exactly from the PowerPoint (PDF), organized and separated by Lecture 9 and Lecture 10 as requested. Lecture 9 – Food Insecurity and Health Inequality Food Security Food security: “a situation in which all community residents can obtain a safe, culturally acceptable, nutritionally adequate diet through a sustainable food system that maximizes self-reliance and social justice”​ Canada does not have a national food policy What is Food Insecurity? When one or more members of a household do not have access to the variety or quantity of food that they need due to lack of money​ Statistics Canada Community Health Survey has a Food Insecurity component with 18 questions differentiating adult’s and children's experiences of hunger​ 4 million Canadians, including 1 in 6 children, responded to at least one question affirmatively​ Number of hungry individuals in Canada has increased by 600,000 individuals from 2007 to 2012​ People who experience food insecurity also tend to report:​ Poor or fair health​ Poor functional health (an inability to perform key activities due to health problems)​ Long-term physical and/or mental disabilities that limit activity at home, work or school​ Multiple chronic conditions​ Major depression​ A perceived lack of social support, such as someone to confide in, count on, or go to for advice​ Canadian food bank usage continued to increase across the country and especially in Toronto Causes of Food Insecurity (according to Statistics Canada) 1.​ Level of Income and Source of Income​ 2.​ Number of Children in the Family​ 3.​ Type of Household​ WHAT IS MISSING?​ Income and Source of Income​ Number of Children​ Household Type Lecture 9 continue: Level of Income and Source of Income Low income is directly related to food insecurity​ In 2012, among low-income households, 41.4% of those with government benefits as their main source of income experienced food insecurity​ While 23.0% of those with an alternate main source of income experienced food insecurity​ Government Benefits: where the main source of household income is one of the following: Employment Insurance, Worker’s Compensation, Benefits from Canada Pension Plan, Old Age Security and Guaranteed Income Supplement, Provincial/Municipal Social assistance or Welfare and Child Tax Benefit​ Alternative Sources of Income: wages and salaries, income from self-employment, dividends and interest (e.g., on bonds and savings), job-related retirement pensions, RRSP/RRIF (Registered Retirement Savings Plan/Registered Retirement Income Fund), child support and alimony Number of Children in the Family (Child Food Insecurity) Childhood obesity and a poor immune system are directly linked to lower consumption of fruits and vegetables, milk products, and lean protein​ Adults often attempt to protect their children from food insecurity by reducing the variety and quantity of their own meals to prevent children from going hungry​ In 2011–2012, in Canada, 8.2% of adults and 4.9% of children lived in households that were food insecure​ Children living in “government-benefit households” experienced MORE food insecurity compared to children living in households with an alternate source of income Type of Household In 2011–2012, lone-parent families with children under 18 reported the highest rate of household food insecurity at 22.6%​ 11.9% of unattached individuals experienced food insecurity​ 7.1% of couples living with children under 18 experienced food insecurity​ Couples with no children reported the lowest rate Does Geography Have Anything to do with it? FOOD DESSERTS Areas of poor access to retail provision of healthy and affordable food, where the population is characterized with deprivation and compound social exclusion (Wrigley 2002) “Access” to Food and “Food Deserts” “Access” to food constrained by four factors:​ Distance (physical) – store close to home​ Affordability (economic) – food not too expensive​ Availability (supply) – of food stores​ Suitability - food is fresh and healthy; also culturally suitable Delineating Food Desserts (Wang and Chen 2016) Food deserts are not easy to delineate as a spatial entity​ Some of the practical questions to be asked are:​ What is the fair travel distance to a supermarket to buy food?​ Should people be expected to take a bus to a supermarket if they do not have a car?​ Researchers often use different criteria to define food deserts Lecture 9 Continue: How far is too far? Issues of Operationalizing the Concept Walk:​ Goldsberry and Acmoody (2010) contend that if accessing fresh food takes longer than a 10-minute walk, then this is a problem​ Other researchers say that 500 meters or as much as 1 km is a “fair distance for disadvantaged consumers to reach a food store that carries healthy food at affordable prices”​ Car: Access to car, but high gas prices​ Public Transit: access to public transit is important, though the distance from home to a bus stop and the bus fare may be another issue (Whelan et al., 2002)​ If you walk or take public transit, you have to carry your groceries home; elderly people and parents with strollers have mobility issues Food stores in Toronto Premium supermarkets​ Discount supermarket (including ethnic supermarket)​ Convenience stores Discount Supermarkets in Toronto Discounters No. of Parent stores company No Frills 81 Loblaws Food Basic 41 Metro Price Chopper/Fresh 3/31 Sobeys Co.  WM supercenter 41 Wal-Mart Ethnic supermarket 115 Various Total 326 Defining Affordability in Toronto Affordability is related to family income​ Statistics Canada provides a specific definition of “low income measures” (LIM). HOUSEHOLD SIZE AFTER TAX INCOME ($):​ 1 PERSON – 19,460​ 2 PERSONS – 27,521​ 3 PERSONS – 33,706​ 4 PERSONS – 38,920​ 5 PERSONS – 43,514​ 6 PERSONS – 47,667​ 7 PERSONS – 51,486 Zone Population and LIM Zone Populatio % Househol % LIM Pop % LIM HH % n d Inner city 966,900 17.6% 456,160 23.0% 181,303 3.3% 86,797 4.4% Inner 1,605,595 29.2% 589,885 29.8% 314,748 5.7% 116,325 5.9% suburb  Fringe 2,088,810 38.0% 648,405 32.7% 256,674 4.7% 81,838 4.1% Outer 838,335 15.2% 287,040 14.5% 67,371 1.2% 23,435 1.2% suburb CMA Total 5,499,640 100.0 1,981,490 100.0 820,096 14.9 308,394 15.6 % % % % Deprived Areas Deprivation (as a form of social inequality):​ Material -- goods and conveniences of everyday life​ Social -- social networks (family and/or community linkages) Access to Healthy and Affordable Food Many Canadians live in “food deserts”: neighbourhoods where residents have little or no access to stores and restaurants that provide healthy and affordable foods​ The closer-to-home alternatives for these people—typically a corner store or a fast food restaurant—are understandable choices​ Geographical constraints will inevitably impact our dietary choices and, ultimately, our likelihood of developing obesity or a chronic disease Recommendations From the social justice perspective, the current store network in the CMA leaves thousands of households in potential food deserts -- a reality, even when the ethnic supermarkets are taken into account​ Researchers have suggested various solutions to mitigate this social problem. Most suggestions call for “retailers taking more social responsibilities” and “planning intervention”. Involving the Private Sector Retailers  May give the private sector the courage to expand markets into food-desert neighbourhoods​ Could also inspire other stores to increase the fresh produce that they sell and decrease the prices The Role of Government and Retailers Retailers adding more stores; adding more affordable, healthy food in their premium supermarkets;​ Appropriate land use policies to guide future store developments: local government should include requirement in development applications that appropriate space in residential projects be reserved for supermarkets, particularly in low income areas and social housing projects FoodShare’s “Mobile Good Food Market” Trucks While city planners work on rezoning initiatives and other policies to eradicate food deserts, FoodShare, working with the City of Toronto and United Way Toronto, found a more immediate solution: mobile food trucks Food Waste in Canada Canadians waste $31 billion of food every year, 47% wasted in the home*.​ The primary contributor to consumer food waste is high expectations—demand for high-quality, aesthetically-pleasing food is a key factor behind the volume of food waste occurring among consumers.*​ In North America, over 30 percent of fruits and vegetables are rejected by supermarkets because they aren't attractive enough for consumers.​ *According to the Cut Waste, Grow Profit 2014 report. Final part of Health Inequality Healthy Canada Health Care Fact Sheets 2014  In 2014, roughly 3.4 million Canadians reported that they did not receive health care when they felt they needed it​ Unmet Health Care Needs increased among:​ Those who did not have a regular medical doctor​ Aboriginal persons​ Immigrants​ Overnight patients at a healthcare facility​ Persons with at least one chronic condition Compared to the national average (11.2%) the percentage of unmet health care needs is slightly lower in Ontario (10.3%), and much higher in Quebec (14.1%) and Yukon (16.9%)​ Across the ten provinces unmet health care needs are highest among:​ Canadians with lower incomes​ Females​ People aged 20 to 54 Health (Mortality) related to Socio-Economic Inequality Deprivation (as a form of social inequality):​ Material -- goods and conveniences of everyday life​ Social -- social networks (family and/or community linkages)​ Deprivation Calculated at the Individual level -- six indicators​ Material​ having a high school diploma​ being employed​ personal income​ Social​ living alone​ being separated, divorced or widowed​ being a member of a lone-parent family The magnitude of social inequalities in health vary greatly​ Regions: More deprivation and higher mortality rates in the Prairies and B.C. vs Central Canada​ Census Metropolitan Areas: Vancouver exhibits higher premature mortality discrepancies than those found in the CMA of Toronto​ Aboriginal/Immigrant/Non-Aboriginal Canadians: socio-economic conditions and health status of Aboriginals living on or off reserves are generally lower than immigrants and those of non-Aboriginal Canadians​ In Canada as a whole, the relative risk of mortality increases gradually with deprivation The Healthy Immigrant Effect Research has repeatedly found a "healthy immigrant effect"—immigrants' health is generally better than that of the Canadian-born, although it tends to decline as their years in Canada increase​ Over time it declines and converges toward that of comparable native-born individuals​ Why?​ Income instability​ Housing​ Food insecurity Food Banks History of Food Bank activities in Canada:​ First food bank started in Canada in 1981​ “Hunger Count” – Public measure of hunger by “Food Banks of Canada” – released annually since 1997​ The 2022 Report​ Food Bank Measurement:​ Most who are hungry do not seek food charity – food bank use is not an actual measure of hunger (Tarasuk, 2016)!!​ What are the outreach processes of food banks?​ Often none – there is just a website, or signs​ Most outreach is to the donors Food Insecurity vs. Food Bank Use in Canada Canadian Community Health Survey (2004): Income-Related Household Food Security in Canada Food Thinkers: Dr. Valerie Tarasuk "Monitoring Food Insecurity in Canada: Shifting the Conversation from Charity to Public Policy" Food Bank Use in Toronto  High housing cost​ Stagnant wages​ Precarious employment​ Rising food prices Acting without Retailers: Community Gardens In Parks​ In Parking Lots​ On Roof Tops Community Gardens Toronto’s community food-security movement uses gardens as one strategy to regenerate the local food system and provide access to healthy, affordable food​ The “gardens” are spaces where passions for plants and food are shared, reflect the city’s shifting cultural landscape and represent an everyday activity that is imbued with multiple meanings​ Scattered throughout the city of Toronto are more than 110 community gardens Community Gardens in Toronto “The Community Gardens Program is cultivating a dynamic community gardening movement across the City. Working in partnership with a wide variety of community groups, the program draws on the collective heritage from Toronto's distinct cultures. Community gardens benefit everyone by creating safe and healthy recreational activity within our parks system, and on other City-owned lands”​ “The Toronto Community Garden Network (TCGN) is made up of individuals and organizations from across the Greater Toronto Area. They are committed to greening and sustainable gardening practices across the City of Toronto, and to make community gardening an integral part of city life”​ Stories about Gardens: Regent Park Community Garden Aquaponics Mississauga opens Canada's First Aquaponic Food Bank Farm in 2016​ The Mississauga Food Bank is aiming to supply clients with healthier options by using aquaponics to produce fresh fish and lettuce. Aquaponics combines fish farming with soil-less agriculture. Lecture 10 – Crime and Gun Control Factors Affecting Your Sense of Place Status and Stigma: Places get labeled according to their social position: the mansions of Rosedale are still mansions, but the mansions of Parkdale are rooming houses​ Security and Stress: Home as castle. Heart of the North American ideal - private property as a vital element of the soul. Places of Status and Stigma “Rosedale”​ $13.8 million​ “Forest Hill”​ $12.9 million​ “Bridal Path”​ $17.5 million​ “Bay Street Corridor”​ $18.8 million​ August 2011​ http://www.torontorealestateboard.com Change in Places of Status and Stigma http://img208.imageshack.us/img208/4089/oldcab21gk.jpg​ “Stop Cabbagetown Gentrification”​ “Village Setting In Downtown Toronto”​ Average sold price $2 million. Foundry Lofts – Landsdowne Ave, Toronto http://www.torontolofts.ca/loft303p_foundry327.html​ “Hot Listing”​ 1800 sq feet​ $719,000​ May 2012​ Originally Canada Foundry Co. Ltd (producing locomotives)​ Since 2008, 104: residential units Building a Safe Neighborhood? Places of Security and Stress What do you perceive?​ http://www.anewmode.com/lifestyle/8-ways-home-indoor-sanctuary/​ Do you feel safe? Happy? Comfortable? Physical Form can be associated with Feeling Safe Open areas​ Street lighting​ Bright places​ Attracting pedestrian flow​ Retail / residential areas​ Visible places​ Police presence? Top 15 Factors Affecting Perception of Safety NIGHT DAY Dark/poor lighting – 62% Deserted – 21% Deserted – 39% Alone – 17% Alone – 36% No access to help – 16% No access to help – 30% Fear of attack – 16% Not visible to others – 26% Not visible to others – 13% Fear of attack – 25% Entrapment areas – 11% Presence of hiding places – 18% Dark/poor lighting – 10% Perception of area residents – Presence of hiding places – 9% 16% Entrapment areas – 13% Harassment – 9% Inadequate security – 13% Perception of area residents – 9% Sense of helplessness – 10% Presence of men – 8% Poor visibility – 9% Sense of helplessness – 8% Harassment – 9% Unfamiliar area – 7% Unfamiliar area – 8% Perception of crime – 7% Presence of men – 8% Inadequate security – 5% Security and Stress in the City Downtowns are considered more unsafe than suburbs yet acts of B&E, theft, and murder are as likely to occur in the suburbs, and gang warfare is as prevalent there as in the city core​ Most police activity focuses on low income, non-white, transition areas for crime, yet statistics show that most of these areas are NOT significantly higher risk than higher income, white, neighborhoods Toronto Police Services – Public Safety Data Portal http://data.torontopolice.on.ca/ Violent Crime Incidents – Toronto (2006) Crime Rate by Neighbourhood (all crimes, 2006) Continuing Lecture 10 – Crime and Gun Control: Where do the guns come from? In 2016 the RCMP estimated that up to 61% of illegal guns started life as a legal Canadian firearm​ Some of the other 39% came from the U.S.​ https://nationalpost.com/news/as-torontos-tragedies-mount-is-canadian-gun-crime-spiralling-out- of-control Reality: Crime in Canada Alberta – Provincial Rural Crime Watch Association​ Rural areas not quite as safe as you may think. Canada’s most violent cities are all in the prairies  Statistics Canada maintains a measure called the “Crime Severity Index,” which counts crimes and then ranks them by severity in order to gauge the relative violence taking place across the country​ According to numbers released in July 2018, Toronto’s crime severity index is 48.7 — well below the Canadian average of 72.9.​ The only major cities with a lower rate, in fact, were Barrie and Quebec City.​ Meanwhile, the prairie cities of Edmonton, Saskatoon, Winnipeg and Regina all have Crime Severity Indices well above 100.​ Edmonton alone suffered 45 murders in 2017 compared to Toronto’s 61 — a particularly notable gap considering that Toronto is more than three times the size Canada’s Most Dangerous Places (2019) Ranking by Crime Severity Index (CSI)​ On the Macleans ranking of most dangerous places in Canada, Toronto ranks 131​ Toronto has a CSI of 60, and it is falling over time​ Just looking at the Violent Crime Severity Index, Toronto has a VCSI of 100 and it is falling​ https://www.macleans.ca/canadas-most-dangerous-places-2019/ Safe Cities Index 2015 The Economist​ 49 indicators covering digital security, health security, infrastructure security and personal security Safe Cities Index 2017: Top 60 http://safecities.economist.com/safe-cities-index-2017 Stop and Search Practices: Profiling “In recent years, racial bias with respect to police stop and search practices has emerged as a particularly controversial issue.​ Canada’s growing black community has been especially vocal in their complaints about what has come to be known as ‘racial profiling’.​ By contrast, allegations of racial bias have, in most cases, been vehemently denied by Canada’s major police services”​ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238046161_The_Usual_Suspects_Police_Stop_and_ Search_Practices_in_Canada Who is scrutinizing? Is it just the police? Retail sector​ Airports​ Health care​ Racial profiling and Religious profiling​ Conscious and unconscious bias​ Repeated profiling can have negative effects on one’s self (Final message will wrap up with Toronto Star analysis, racial profiling stats, and key findings from Wortley & Owusu-Bempah’s research) Wrapping up Lecture 10 – Crime and Gun Control: Racial Profiling in Ontario The Ontario Human Rights Commission has just released a new report on racial profiling in Ontario entitled, Under Suspicion​ Chief Commissioner Renu Mandhane discusses the wide range of sectors in which racial profiling takes place including policing, health care, retail and travel​ The Agenda examines the impacts of racial profiling, the challenges of combatting it and the recommendations of the report​ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vp7NzLAEO7A Why is Crime Research Difficult to Conduct? Complete ban on the collection and release of all race-crime data​ Not only crime statistics​ All data related to the processing of racial minorities through the criminal justice system​ Canadian researchers do not have regular access to official data on the race of people stopped and searched by police​ No quantitative data, only qualitative research​ Attacked as ‘anecdotal’ or ‘junk science’ by police officials and some academics Toronto Star Analysis and Report (2002) In 2002, for the first time the Toronto Star was allowed access to the police database​ Database -- 6 years -- 1996 to 2002​ More than 800,000 criminal and other charges​ “Singled out” by Jim Rankin, Jennifer Quinn, Michelle Shephard and John Duncanson​ https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/knowntopolice/singled-out.html Toronto Star Report (2002) Findings: Racial profiling? GENERAL ALL CRIMES:​ Black people arrested by Toronto police are treated more harshly than white people​ TRAFFIC RULE VIOLATIONS:​ A disproportionate number of black motorists are ticketed for traffic violations Simple Drug Possession… Charged:​ 63.8 % – White​ 23.6 % – Black​ 12.0 % – Brown/South Asian and “other” (including “Chinese” and other “Far Eastern”) HELD:​ Black people charged with simple drug possession are taken to police stations more often than white people facing the same charge​ Once at the station, accused black people are twice more likely than white people to be held overnight or for a bail hearing RELEASED:​ White people were released on the scene more often than Black people​ Brown people were released in much the same way as white people, while “others” were treated more like black people Toronto Star Report (2010) Between 2003 and 2008, Toronto police filled out 1.7 million contact cards (data about the person is filled in a card)​  Police use the card data to link people and find witnesses and suspects in later crimes​ Black people are three times more likely to be documented than white people​ Black people arrested for drug possession are more likely to be held for bail​ Black motorists continue to be disproportionately ticketed for driving offences​ Black people are also charged with violent crime at a higher rate than any other group Scot Wortley and Akwasi Owusu-Bempa (2011) – The Usual Suspects Policing & Society, Vol. 21, No. 4​ Research Method:​ Interviews with 1522 respondents who identified themselves as either Black (N: 513), Chinese (N: 504) or White (N: 505) Findings: Perceptions of Racial Profiling Black Canadians are much more likely to perceive racial profiling as a major social problem than their Chinese and White counterparts​ 57% of Black respondents say racial profiling in Canada is a “big problem”​ Compared to 21% of White and 14% of Chinese respondents​ More White (39%) and Chinese (34%) respondents viewed racial profiling tactics as a legitimate crime-fighting strategy than Black respondents (23%) Findings: Direct Contact with the Police 34% of Black respondents have been stopped by the police in the past two years​ Compared to 28% of White respondents and 22% of Chinese respondents​ Black people are more likely to experience multiple police stops Findings: Gender Difference Black males:​ More vulnerable to police stops – 23% stopped 3 or more times in past 2 years​ Only 8% of White males and 6% of Chinese males reported the same​ 12% of Black males report being searched by police​ Compared to only 3% of White and Chinese males​ Black females also more likely to be searched (3%) than White or Chinese women (1%) Findings: Results using Multivariate Analysis Being young:​ Black males and younger respondents are more likely to be stopped and searched than females or older respondents​ Place of Residence Matters:​ Respondents living in high crime neighbourhoods are also more likely to be stopped and searched than those who reside in safer communities What are the implications? If Black people are systematically stopped and searched more frequently than others, they are also more likely to be detected and arrested for illegal activity​ Racial differences in police stop and search activities directly contribute to the over-representation of Black people in the Canadian criminal justice system​ People who are frequently stopped and searched by the police have less trust in the justice system and are more likely to view criminal justice institutions as biased A Sense of Belonging to Canada? “Theories of the alienation of immigrants to Canada, and of the second generation (who are not immigrants themselves), are a product of settlement and ‘integration’ processes.”​ “We dispute the exclusive focus on immigrants, the methods previously employed, and the reluctance of scholars and the media to confront the role of racism in the process of developing (or failing to develop) a sense of belonging.”​ “Instead, we suggest an alternative theory: that the racism experienced by both immigrant and native-born Canadians is the principal cause of alienation.”​ AlieNation: Racism, Injustice and Other Obstacles to Full Citizenship – Patricia Burke Wood & Scot Wortley – CERIS Working Paper No. 78, August 2010