TEAS Science Study Guide PDF

Teas science study guide: Important subjects 1. **Human anatomy**: body systems, functions, three planes (sagittal, coronal, transverse), heart and blood flow 2. **Biology**: Protein synthesis (transcription and translation), roles of DNA and RNA, biological molecules (nucleic acids, li...

Teas science study guide: Important subjects 1. **Human anatomy**: body systems, functions, three planes (sagittal, coronal, transverse), heart and blood flow 2. **Biology**: Protein synthesis (transcription and translation), roles of DNA and RNA, biological molecules (nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, proteins), cell organelles, Genetics (Genotype vs phenotype), punnet squares, 3. **Chemistry**: physical properties of change (solid, liquid, gas) (melting, freezing, boiling), chemical reactions, acids, and bases, read elements, protons, neutrons, electrons, valance electrons, metals, non-metals, mixed metal (periodic table), ionic vs covalent bonds, polar vs nonpolar, density 4. Scientific method: comprehension of the method A blue and white poster with text and images Description automatically generated **Teas 7 Science** **Anatomy section: body systems** 1. **[Anatomical Terminology]** Cephalic-Head Cranial-Skull Facial-Face Frontal-Forehead Occipital-base of skull Temporal-Temple orbital/ocular-eye Otic-Ear Buccal-Cheek Nasal-nose Oral-Mouth Mental-Chin Cervical-Neck Sternal-Breastbone Thoracic-Chest Mammary-Breast Acromial-Shoulder Scapular-Shoulder blade Vertebral-Spinal column Lumbar-Lower back Dorsal-Back Axillary-Armpit Brachial-Arm Antecubital-Front of elbow Olecranal/cubital-Back of elbow Antebrachial-Forearm Carpal-Wrist Palmar-Palm Pollex-Thumb Dorsum-Back of hand Manual-Hand Digital/phalangeal-Fingers Abdominal-Abdomen Umbilical-Naval Coxa-Hip Sacral-Between hips Coccygeal-Tailbone Gluteal-Buttock Pelvic-Pelvis Pubic-Pubis Perineal-Area between the anus and external genitals Inguinal-groin Femoral-Thigh Patella-knee Popliteal-back of knee Crural-Shin Sural-Calf Pedal-Foot Tarsal-Ankle Digital of phalangeal-Toe Pedal-Foot Plantar-Sole of foot Calcaneal- Heel Tarsal-Ankle Dorsum-Top of foot Hallux-Great toe **[Anatomical Position and Direction]** Anterior (toward front) Posterior (toward the back) Superior (towards the head) Inferior (towards the feet) Medial (Middle/Midline) Lateral (away from the midline) Proximal (Towards the trunk of the body) Distal (away from the trunk of the body)  **[Planes of the body]** Sagittal/medial plane- The vertical plane that divides the body into its right and left halves Frontal/coronal plane- The vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior halves Transverse/cross-section plane- The horizontal plane that divides the body into its superior and inferior halves **[Body systems]** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **System** | **Structure/Function** | +===================================+===================================+ | Respiratory system | **Nose** (external opening), | | | **nostrils** (lead to the nasal | | | cavity), **mouth and throat** | | | (tube to the esophagus), | | | **larynx** (voice box), | | | **trachea** (windpipe, to | | | bronchi), **Bronchi** (into the | | | lungs), **bronchioles** (to | | | alveoli), **Alveoli** (sacks for | | | gas exchange), **Lungs** (right | | | lung has 3 sections, left has 2, | | | where your heart sits) | | | | | | **Function**: oxygen and carbon | | | dioxide exchange, can maintain | | | the pH of the blood. | | | | | | **Affecters**: Diseases | | | (pneumonia, bronchitis, asthma), | | | cigarettes, pollution and dust, | | | allergies, and inflammation | | | (become narrow) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cardiovascular system | **Blood** (carries oxygen), Right | | | atrium, left atrium, right | | | ventricle, left ventricle, | | | **septum** (the part of the heart | | | that separates the left and right | | | ventricle), **arteries** | | | (oxygenated blood away from the | | | heart), **veins** (deoxygenated | | | blood back to the heart), | | | **capillaries** (connect arteries | | | and veins), blood vessels (carry | | | blood throughout the body) | | | | | | **Function**: to carry oxygen, | | | minerals, and hormones throughout | | | the body in the blood. Maintains | | | body's blood pressure (force of | | | blood against walls). Regulates | | | body temperature (risesblood | | | vessels dilate/widen) (drops | | | blood vessels constrict/narrow). | | | They are maintaining body pH. | | | | | | **Structure**: two types of | | | contractions | | | | | | - **Systole**: contraction of | | | the heart- "LUB" sound aka | | | the 1^st^ sound | | | | | | - **Diastole**: relaxation of | | | the heart- "DUB" sound aka | | | the 2^nd^ sound (SV valves | | | close) | | | | | | **Electrical system**: starts at | | | SA nodes in the right and left | | | atrium; sends impulses to AV | | | node; then goes to AV bundle aka | | | bundle of His; branches off into | | | bundle branches (located where | | | the septum is); then goes to the | | | Purkinje fibers | | | | | | **Blood flow** | | | | | | Deoxygenated blood Veins right | | | atrium right ventricle lungs | | | | | | Oxygenated blood Lungs left | | | atrium left ventricle aorta the | | | rest of the body | | | | | | Right atrium tricuspid valveright | | | ventriclepulmonary trunk (valve) | | | pulmonary artery pulmonary veins | | | left atrium mitral valve left | | | ventricle aortic valve aorta aka | | | rest of the body | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Digestive system | **Mouth** (breaks down food | | | mechanically, lubricates food), | | | **Pharynx** (delivers food to the | | | esophagus), **Esophagus** | | | (transports food from the throat | | | to the stomach), **stomach** | | | (holds food, breaks down with | | | stomach acid and enzymes), | | | **small** **intestine** (has 3 | | | parts, duodenum, jejunum, and | | | ileum; absorbs nutrients and | | | water; helps transfers further | | | down), **Large intestine** | | | (absorbs water and electrolytes, | | | producing and absorbing vitamins, | | | forming propelling feces towards | | | rectum), **rectum** (eliminates | | | remaining substance) | | | | | | **Function**: to digest and | | | absorb food and then excrete the | | | waste products | | | | | | **Enzymes and hormones of the | | | digestive system** | | | | | | - **Gastrin**: produced in the | | | stomach and stimulates | | | stomach acid | | | | | | - **Cholecystokinin:** AKA CCK, | | | produced in the small | | | intestine; stimulates the | | | release of enzymes from the | | | pancreas and bile from the | | | liver | | | | | | - **Secretin**: produced in the | | | small intestine; stimulates | | | the production of bicarbonate | | | by the pancreas | | | | | | - **Insulin**: produced in the | | | pancreas; regulates blood | | | sugar levels | | | | | | - **Glucagon**: produced in the | | | pancreas; helps release | | | glucose from the liver | | | | | | - **Bile**: produced by the | | | liver, stored in the | | | gallbladder; breaks down fat | | | in the small intestine | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Nervous system | **Divided into 2 main parts** | | | | | | 1. **The central nervous | | | system**: The brain and | | | spinal cord. Also known as | | | the command center where | | | communication and actions | | | occur in the body | | | | | | 2. **The peripheral nervous | | | system:** Nerves that branch | | | off the spinal cord and | | | innervate the body. Sends | | | signals by the brain to the | | | targeted locations. | | | | | | **Function**: transmit signals | | | between the brain and the rest of | | | the body, including internal | | | organs | | | | | | **Need to know the structure of | | | neurons.** | | | | | | - **Cell body**: contains a | | | nucleus, Golgi body, | | | endoplasmic reticulum, | | | mitochondria, and other | | | components | | | | | | - **Dendrites**: branch-like | | | structures that receive | | | messages from outer neurons | | | and transmit messages to the | | | cell body | | | | | | - **Axon**: the tube-like | | | structure that carries | | | electrical impulses from the | | | cell body to the axon | | | terminals that pass the | | | impulse to another neuron. | | | | | | - **Synapse**: chemical | | | junction between the terminal | | | of one neuron and the | | | dendrites of another neuron | | | | | | - **Myelin sheath**: allows | | | electrical impulses to | | | transmit quickly and | | | efficiently along the nerve | | | cells | | | | | | - **Schwann cell**: type of | | | glial cell. Surround the | | | neurons, acting as a | | | covering. | | | | | | - **Node of Ranvier** allows | | | ions to diffuse in and out of | | | the neuron, sending the | | | electrical signal down the | | | axon | | | | | | - **Axon terminal**: transmits | | | messages to other cells via | | | the use of neurotransmitters | | | at synapses | | | | | | **The function of the neuron** | | | | | | - **Sensory (afferent) | | | neurons** send messages to | | | the central nervous system | | | | | | - **Motor (efferent) neurons** | | | send messages to the muscles | | | | | | | | | | | | - **Autonomic nervous system**: | | | involuntary actions such as | | | heart rate, digestion, and | | | respiration (what you cannot | | | control) | | | | | | - **Somatic nervous system**: | | | voluntary actions such as the | | | movement of limbs (what you | | | can control) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Muscular system | **Types of muscle tissues** | | | | | | 1. **Skeletal muscle**: attach | | | to bones, are responsible for | | | movement (only voluntary | | | tissue in the body) | | | | | | 2. **Cardiac muscle**: found in | | | the heart and pump blood | | | throughout the body | | | | | | 3. **Smooth muscle**: found in | | | organ and vessel walls such | | | as stomach, intestines, and | | | blood vessels | | | | | | **Functions of muscle tissues**: | | | responsible for movement of the | | | body | | | | | | **Nerves control muscles in the | | | nervous system** | | | | | | - **Nerves**: control muscles | | | by sending electrical | | | impulses to the muscle | | | | | | | | | | | | - Originates in the brain | | | Spinal cord AxonMuscle | | | nervemuscle fiber | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Reproductive system | **Male reproductive system**: | | | | | | **Testes**: pair of oval-shaped | | | organs; produces sperm and | | | testosterone | | | | | | **Epididymis**: Long, coiled tube | | | that stores and transports sperm | | | | | | **Vas deferens**: Long, thin tube | | | that carries sperm from the | | | epididymis to the seminal | | | vesicles | | | | | | **Seminal vesicles**: pair of | | | sac-like structures that produce | | | a fluid to nourish the sperm | | | | | | **Prostate gland**: small, round | | | organ that produces a fluid that | | | helps to transport the sperm | | | | | | **Penis**: long, cylindrical | | | organ; carries urine and sperm | | | out of the body | | | | | | **Female reproductive system** | | | | | | **Ovaries**: pair of small, | | | oval-shaped organs that produce | | | eggs and hormones | | | | | | **Fallopian tubes**: pair of | | | long, thin tubes carrying eggs | | | from the ovaries to the uterus | | | | | | **Uterus**: pear-shaped organ | | | that houses and protects a | | | developing fetus | | | | | | **Vagina**: The long, cylindrical | | | organ that carries blood and | | | mucosal tissue from the uterus | | | during women's "cycle"; provides | | | a passageway for intercourse and | | | sperm until its distributed to | | | the uterus, and allows passage | | | for vaginal childbirth (need to | | | be 10cm dilated) | | | | | | **Vulva**: the external female | | | genitalia; includes the labia, | | | clitoris, and urethra | | | | | | **Endocrine and reproductive | | | system relationship** | | | | | | **Gonadotropin-releasing | | | hormone**: produced in the | | | hypothalamus and stimulates the | | | release of follicle-stimulating | | | hormone and luteinizing hormone | | | from the pituitary gland | | | | | | **The follicle-stimulating | | | hormone** helps stimulate the | | | growth of eggs in ovaries and | | | controls menstrual cycle. | | | | | | **Luteinizing hormone**: helps | | | trigger ovulation, releasing an | | | egg from the ovary. | | | | | | **Testosterone**: A hormone | | | produced by the testes that helps | | | produce sperm and develop male | | | characteristics | | | | | | **Estrogen**: a hormone produced | | | by the ovaries that helps to | | | develop female characteristics | | | and regulates the menstrual cycle | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Integumentary system | **Structure:** 3 main layers of | | | the skin | | | | | | **Epidermis**: Outermost layer of | | | skin that provides a waterproof | | | barrier and protects the body | | | from infection | | | | | | **Dermis**: Middle layer of skin | | | that contains blood vessels, | | | nerves, hair follicles, and sweat | | | glands | | | | | | **Subcutaneous/hypodermis**: The | | | innermost layer of skin, consists | | | of fat and connective tissue | | | | | | **Functions**: | | | | | | 1. **Protection**: the skin | | | protects the body from | | | harmful substances, UV rays, | | | and excessive water loss by | | | creating a barrier from | | | outside pathogens. | | | | | | 2. **Excretion**: contains sweat | | | glands to help regulate body | | | temperature to cool the body. | | | Sweat eventually evaporates. | | | Sweat contains trace amounts | | | of lactic acid, urea, and | | | alcohol | | | | | | 3. **Sensation**: the skin has | | | many nerves packed with nerve | | | endings that allow us to feel | | | touch, pressure, heat, and | | | cold | | | | | | **Homeostasis**: helps by | | | regulating the body's temperature | | | and fluid balance | | | | | | - **Warm**: when the body | | | becomes too warm, blood | | | vessels in the skin dilate | | | and sweat is produced to cool | | | the body off | | | | | | - **Cold**: when the body | | | becomes too cold, the blood | | | vessels will constrict/narrow | | | to keep heat in | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Endocrine system | **Glands**: | | | | | | - **Pituitary gland**: | | | considered the master gland | | | of the endocrine system; | | | produces growth hormones, | | | prolactin, and | | | adrenocorticotropic hormone | | | | | | - **Thyroid gland**: produces | | | thyroxine (regulates | | | metabolism), and calcitonin | | | (regulates calcium levels in | | | blood) | | | | | | - **Parathyroid gland**: | | | produces parathyroid hormone, | | | which helps regulate calcium | | | levels in the blood | | | | | | - **Thymus gland**: produces | | | thymosin, helps develop the | | | immune system | | | | | | - **Adrenal gland**: produces | | | epinephrine and | | | norepinephrine, regulates the | | | fight-or-flight response | | | | | | - **Pancreas**: produces | | | insulin and glucagon, helps | | | regulate blood sugar levels | | | | | | - **Ovaries**: produce estrogen | | | and progesterone which helps | | | to regulate the menstrual | | | cycle | | | | | | - **Testes**: produce | | | testosterone which helps | | | regulate the development of | | | male reproductive organs and | | | secondary sex characteristics | | | | | | **Functions**: | | | | | | - **Growth and development**: | | | such as growth hormones | | | regulating development | | | | | | - **Metabolism**: hormones play | | | a role in regulating | | | metabolism | | | | | | - **Reproduction**: sex | | | hormones (estrogen, | | | progestogen, etc.) | | | | | | - **Mood**: hormones play a | | | role in mood | | | | | | - **Lipid-based hormones** made | | | up of cholesterol and include | | | testosterone and estrogen. | | | These hormones are insoluble | | | in water and are transported | | | in the blood by carrier | | | proteins | | | | | | - **Non-polar, fat-soluble | | | hormones** comprise amino | | | acids, including thyroid | | | hormones. These hormones are | | | insoluble in water and are | | | transported in the blood by | | | carrier proteins. | | | | | | - **Water-soluble hormones**: | | | made of amino acids and | | | include epinephrine. These | | | hormones are soluble in water | | | and are transported in the | | | blood by diffusion. | | | | | | **Homeostasis**: | | | | | | - Growth and development | | | | | | - Metabolism | | | | | | - Reproduction | | | | | | - Mood | | | | | | **Positive vs negative feedback | | | mechanisms** | | | | | | - Positive: a feedback | | | mechanism that amplifies the | | | change in a given direction; | | | ex: | | | | | | - Negative: most common; a | | | feedback mechanism that | | | reverses the change or slows | | | it down; ex: | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Urinary system | **Kidneys**: a pair of organs | | | that filter blood and produce | | | urine | | | | | | **Renal cortex**: Outer layer of | | | the kidney; contains the renal | | | pyramids and blood vessels. | | | Erythropoietin is stimulated in | | | the production of new red blood | | | cells | | | | | | **Renal medulla**: the inner | | | layer of the kidney that helps to | | | concentrate urine | | | | | | **Ureters**: Pair a of tubes that | | | carry urine from the kidneys to | | | the bladder | | | | | | **Bladder**: A sac that stores | | | urine until it is ready to be | | | excreted | | | | | | **Urethra**: a tube that carries | | | urine from the bladder to the | | | outside of the body | | | | | | **Function**: an integral part of | | | homeostasis. Help maintain | | | balance. The structural unit of | | | the kidney is the nephron. | | | | | | **Nephrons**: Are responsible for | | | blood filtration by removing | | | waste and reabsorbing water in | | | molecules. | | | | | | **Glomerulus**: A ball of | | | capillaries; site of filtration | | | within the neuron | | | | | | **Tubule**: A tube leading from | | | the glomerulus to the renal | | | pelvis; responsible for | | | reabsorption and secretion; | | | whatever remains will be carried | | | into the kidneys and drained out | | | from the ureter | | | | | | **Relation to the cardiovascular | | | system**: | | | | | | - Works together to maintain | | | homeostasis in the body | | | | | | - Cardiovascular transports | | | blood to the kidneys so they | | | can filter it | | | | | | - Urinary secretes wastes and | | | helps to regulate blood | | | pressure by controlling the | | | volume of blood | | | | | | - Kidneys produce a hormone | | | called erythropoietin that | | | stimulates the production of | | | new red blood cells in the | | | cardiovascular system. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Immune system | **Immune defense system**: | | | | | | **Innate defense system**: 1st | | | line of defense against | | | infections | | | | | | - Skin, mucous membranes, | | | enzymes, and stomach acid | | | | | | - One of the first responses is | | | called the inflammatory | | | response. When blood vessels | | | dilate, white blood cells and | | | fluids are sent to the area | | | of infection. | | | | | | - Histamines are released | | | causing an increase in blood | | | flow to the area and the | | | number of white blood cells | | | called phagocytes. These | | | phagocytes destroy the | | | unknown bacteria. | | | | | | - This response helps to remove | | | the foreign invader and to | | | begin the healing process. | | | | | | **Adaptive defense system**: 2nd | | | line of defense against | | | infections. | | | | | | - Lymphatic system, WBCs and | | | antibodies | | | | | | - Antigens are foreign invaders | | | that the body has been | | | exposed to such as bacteria | | | or viruses, that induce an | | | immune response. | | | | | | - Antigen-presenting cells are | | | WBCs that engulf the foreign | | | invader and present the | | | antigen on its surface. | | | | | | - Helper T cells are a type of | | | WHB that helps to activate | | | the other cells of the immune | | | system. Induce B cells to | | | secrete a large number of | | | antibodies to bind to the | | | antigen. | | | | | | - Cytotoxic T cells are a type | | | of WBC that destroys infected | | | cells. | | | | | | - Cytokines are chemicals that | | | help to regulate the immune | | | response and activate | | | cytotoxic T cells. | | | | | | - Antibodies are proteins that | | | attach to antigens and help | | | to destroy them. | | | | | | - Memory cells are WBCs that | | | remember a specific foreign | | | invader and help the body to | | | respond more quickly if the | | | invader enters the body again | | | | | | **Passive vs active immunity** | | | | | | **Passive immunity**: when the | | | body is exposed to antibodies | | | that have been made by another | | | individual. Ex: mother passing | | | down antibodies to her child | | | through breast milk | | | | | | **Active immunity** is when the | | | body produces antibodies in | | | response to an infection. It | | | usually lasts longer than passive | | | immunity. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Skeletal system | **Long bones**: found in legs and | | | arms; include the femur, humerus, | | | ulna, radius, tibia, and fibula. | | | They are longer than they are | | | wide and have a shaft with 2 | | | enlarged ends called the proximal | | | and distal ends. The shaft of the | | | bone is called the diaphysis and | | | enlarged ends are called the | | | epiphysis. | | | | | | **Short bones**: found in the | | | wrists and ankles; include the | | | bones of the carpals and tarsals. | | | Approximately equal in length and | | | width. | | | | | | Flat bones: found in the ribs, | | | sternum, shoulder, blades, and | | | hip bones. Thin and often curved. | | | | | | Irregular bones: found in the | | | spine and include the vertebrae. | | | Variety of shapes and are not | | | symmetrical. | | | | | | **Bone composition** | | | | | | **Compact bone**: the hard outer | | | layer of bone, provides | | | protection and support. Makes up | | | shafts of long bones and flat | | | surfaces of other bones. | | | | | | **Spongy bone**: porous, | | | lightweight bone that is found at | | | the ends of long bones and in the | | | vertebrae. | | | | | | **Cancellous bone**: a type of | | | spongy bone that contains many | | | small cavities. | | | | | | **Trabecular bone**: a type of | | | spongy bone that has a | | | honeycomb-like structure. | | | | | | **Brittle bone disease**: | | | (osteogenesis imperfecta) results | | | from a mutation in the gene that | | | codes for collagen, which is a | | | protein that makes up bone | | | tissue. This disease causes bones | | | to be fragile and break easily. | | | | | | **Relation to the muscular | | | system** | | | | | | - The muscular system provides | | | movement for the skeletal | | | system. Must work together | | | through communication with | | | the nervous system | | | | | | - The muscle connects to bones | | | with tendons which are | | | comprised of connective | | | tissue | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **[Body functions charts ]** Capillary \| Blood Vessels, Exchange \... Save The Planet Short Bones - Definition, Examples, & Functions, with DiagramGlossary: Bone **Biology section** **Cell structure, function, and organization** Biology hierarchy of the body Cells (basic unit of life) Tissues (made up of cells with similar structure and function) organs (made up of tissues that work together to function) organ system (multiple organs working together) organism (made up of one or more organ systems) **Modern cell theory:** several key principles 1. The cell is the smallest living unit in all organisms 2. All living things are made up of cells (singular or multiple) 3. All cells come from other pre-existing cells (replicate, complex capable of division) +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Prokaryotes (**Pro | Common | Eukaryotes (**Eu | | means No**) | | means do**) | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | - Bacteria | - Both have DNA | - Fungi | | | | | | - Archaea | - Cytoplasm | - Animals | | | | | | - No nucleus | - Ribosomes | - Protist | | | | | | - No cell | - Cell membrane | - Plants | | membrane-bound | | | | organelles | | - Has nucleus | | | | | | | | - Cell | | | | membrane-bound | | | | organelles | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Cell membrane** | - Referred to as the plasma | | | membrane | | | | | | - Separates the interior of the | | | cell from the outside | | | environment | | | | | | - Has selective permeability= | | | only specific materials can | | | pass in and out | | | | | | - Keeps cells stable aka | | | homeostasis | | | | | | - Self-regulating process by | | | which biological systems | | | maintain stability while | | | adjusting to a changing | | | external environment | +===================================+===================================+ | **Cytoplasm** | - Gelatinous liquid that fills | | | the inside of the cell | | | | | | - In both pro and eukaryotes | | | | | | - Provides structural support | | | to the cell through the | | | cytoskeleton | | | | | | **Cytoskeleton**: a network of | | | fibers that provides structural | | | support for the cells and | | | organelles; helps with movement | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Ribosomes** | - Intercellular structures made | | | of both RNA and protein | | | | | | - Site of protein synthesis in | | | the cell (making of protein) | | | | | | - Assemble proteins using | | | instructions encoded in mRNA | | | (decode mRNA) | | | | | | **Amino acids**: small molecules | | | that are the building blocks of | | | proteins | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Nucleus** | - Membrane-enclosed organelle | | | within a cell that contains | | | the chromosomes (DNA) | | | | | | - Exclusive to eukaryotes | | | | | | - The control center | | | | | | - DNA is housed and stored | | | | | | - Houses nucleolus | | | | | | **Nucleolus**: area inside the | | | nucleus, made up of RNA and | | | proteins, where ribosomes are | | | made | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Endoplasmic reticulum | - Serves many roles in the cell | | | | | | - Calcium storage, protein | | | synthesis, lipid metabolism | | | | | | - 2 forms | | | | | | Rough ER | | | | | | - Provides surface area for | | | chemical reactions, protein | | | transport | | | | | | - Rough due to surface covered | | | in ribosomes | | | | | | Smooth ER | | | | | | - Makes cellular products such | | | as hormones and lipids | | | | | | - Detoxification | | | | | | - Lacks ribosomes | | | | | | - Synthesis of types of lipids | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Golgi apparatus | - Helps process and package | | | proteins and lipid molecules | | | | | | Enzyme assistance | | | | | | - Receives materials from | | | transport vesicles that | | | detach from ER | | | | | | - Enzymes modify molecules and | | | organizes them | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Mitochondria | - The powerhouse of the cell | | | | | | - Cellular respiration | | | | | | - ATP (adenosine triphosphate): | | | energy source | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Plant cells: Chloroplast | - Type of plastid (sac-like | | | organelle w/double membrane) | | | | | | - Services as a site for | | | photosynthesis | | | | | | Photosynthesis: energy from the | | | sun is converted to chemical | | | energy for growth | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Lysosomes | - Contains digestive enzymes | | | that break down excess or | | | worn-out cell parts | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Vacuole | - Animal cells: help sequester | | | waste products | | | | | | - Plant cell: maintain water | | | balance | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Chemistry section**: Objectives/ need to know - Basic atomic structure - Physical properties and changes of matter - Chemical reactions - Conditions affect chemical reactions - Properties of solutions - Acids and bases **Basic atomic structure** **Protons**: positive charge **Neutrons**: neutral charge (no electrical charge) **Electrons**: negative charge; 2000 times smaller than a proton Types of elements are determined by the number of protons within the nucleus **Isotopes**: atoms of the same element with different charges of neutrons; ex: carbon 12 and carbon 13 (same element but number indicates different number of neutrons) **Atomic mass**: total number of protons and neutrons **Atomic number**: the number of protons, determines elements placed on the periodic table - More electrons than protons= negative charge - More protons than electrons= positive charge - If the number of protons and electrons is equal, then the atom is neutral How do you find an atomic number? + Example **Ions**: atoms that have gained or lost protons, charge is either positive or negative **Cations**: cats have paws; lose 1 or more electrons, therefore more positive **Anions**: atoms that have gained 1 or more electrons, therefore more negative How elements are organized - The first 2 rows (alkali and alkaline earth metals) are considered active metals - Middle of the table (transition metals) are considered reactive metals - Elements on the far-right column of the periodic table (noble gases) are considered inactive gases - Periods/columns are down, groups/rows are across the table - Electronegativity increases as you go left to right and decreases as you go down Orbitals are areas where electrons are likely to be found and are different to accommodate the different electron numbers. - S orbitals: can hold 2 electrons at a time, - P orbitals: can hold 6 electrons at a time, dumbbell-shaped - D orbitals: can hold 10 electrons at a time, hourglass-shaped - F orbitals: can hold 14 electrons at a time, irregularly shaped **Valance electrons** The electrons located on the outermost shell Valance electrons are also related to the element's group number Note: Group 7 aka the halogens are the closest to becoming stable (when they have a full valance shell) (8 are the most stable) **Ionic bond**: one atom gives the other atom electrons to achieve stability **Covalent bond**: atoms share electrons to achieve stability **Mass, volume, and density** **Matter**: anything that has mass and occupies space **Physical properties**: refer to the different properties of a substance that can change its state without changing the identity of the substance **Mass**: the amount of matter in an object. A measure of the inertia of an object is measured in grams (g). **Volume**: the amount of space an object occupies and is measured in liters (L) **Density**: the mass of an object divided by its volume. How much matter is packed into a given space and is measured in grams per liter (g/L) **States of Matter** **Solids**: definite shape and volume. Least compressible state of matter. Molecules are tightly packed together. **Liquids**: definite volume but take the shape of their container. They are more compressible than solids. Molecules are still packed but not as much. **Gases**: have neither definite shape nor volume. Most compressible, molecules are furthest apart from each other. **Plasma**: state of matter often found in the stars. It's a gas that is ionized, electrons have been stripped from the atoms (not the same as blood plasma)  - The phase of a substance is dependent on 2 conditions: Temperature and pressure - Temperature: measured by the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance. The higher the temperature, the more energy molecules have (move particles of matter apart) and the more space they take up - Pressure: a measure of the force exerted on an object by the surrounding atmosphere. The higher the pressure, the more the molecules are forced together **Chemical properties** - Refers to the ability of a substance to change its identity. It can happen when the substance undergoes a chemical reaction. - These changes can include condensation, evaporation, sublimation, deposition, melting, and freezing. - **Condensation**: the process of a gas changing to a liquid. This happens when the gas molecules slow down and become closer together. - **Evaporation**: the process of a liquid changing to a gas. This happens when the molecules of a liquid gain enough energy to break away from the surface of the liquid. - **Sublimation**: the process of a solid changing to a gas. This happens when the molecules of the solid gain enough energy to break away from the surface of the solid. - **Deposition**: the process of a gas changing to a solid. This happens when the gas molecules slow down and become closer together. - **Melting**: the process of a solid changing to a liquid. This happens when the molecules of the solid gain enough energy to break away from each other. - **Freezing**: the process of a liquid changing to a solid. This happens when the molecules of the liquid lose enough energy to stay together. States of Matter **Ionic bonds**: when atoms gain or lose valence electrons (take or giveaway) electrons transfer **Covalent bonds**: atoms share valance electrons **Chemical reactions** - Represented by chemical equations, which are written using symbols and formulas. Symbols represent the elements in the reaction - Reactants products - Reactants are the substances that are involved in the reaction - Products are the new substances that are formed by the reaction - Ex: C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2 (oxygen) 6CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 2H2O (water) **Balancing chemical reactions** - A chemical equation must be balanced - Must be the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the arrow - **Coefficient**: number placed in front of a symbol or formula to multiply it - Ex: equation for the combustion of methane (CH) is: CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O - Practice: H2O H2 +O2 **Moles in chemical reactions** **Mole**: the unit that is used to measure the amount of a substance - Number of atoms, molecules, or mass of a substance - Ex: the equation for the combustion of methane (CH) is: CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O **Factors that influence reaction rates** - **Catalysts**: speed up reactions - **Endothermic reactions**: reactions that absorb heat - Temperature increases when cooking an egg (heat is absorbed from the pan to cook the egg) - **exothermic reactions**: reactions to release heat - the concentration of reactants causing combustion or rain condensation of water vapor into rain releasing energy in the form of heat **Chemical equilibria** - **Equilibrium**: The rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse action - **Dynamic equilibrium**: the forward and reverse reactions are occurring at the same time - Ex: soda. Inside the sealed bottle, carbon dioxide is present in both liquid and gaseous phases (bubbles). 2 phases are considered dynamic equilibrium since the carbon dioxide is dissolved into the liquid form at the same rate as the liquid form is being converted to gas. - Static equilibrium: concentration of the reactants and products are not changing - Ex: the weight of the body. The body\'s weight is nothing but the amount of gravitational force acting on it. The gravitational constant is the same for all objects therefore, the body doesn't change when it is repositioned. **Catalysts** - Speed up reactions - Activation energy: the minimum amount of energy that is needed for a chemical reaction to occur. **Polarity of water** - The polarity of water allows it to form hydrogen bonds with other molecules - Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between molecules **Cohesion**: the process of a similar molecule surrounding and binding to another molecule **Adhesion**: the process of dissimilar molecules biding to another molecule **Solvents and solutes** **Solvent**: a substance that dissolves in another substance; ex: water is the most universal solvent **Solute**: a substance that dissolves in a solvent; ex: sugar is the most common solute. Hydrophilic (water-loving); hydrophobic (water-fearing) **Solubility**: the ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent. The amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent is called the solubility limit Concentration and dilution of solutions - The amount of solute that is dissolved in a given amount of solvent **Dilution**: the process of adding solvent to a solution to decrease the concentration of the solution. **Molarity**: a unit of measurement that describes the concentration of a solute in a solution. Molarity is expressed as moles of solute per liter of solution (mole of solute/liters of solution- mol/L) **Osmosis and Diffusion** **Osmosis**: the process of [water molecules] moving from an area of [high-water concentration to an area of low-water concentration through a semi-permeable membrane]. **Diffusion**: the process of [molecules] moving from an area [of high concentration to an area of low concentration]. **Passive transport**: does not require energy, only requires that molecules be in motion. **Active transport**: molecules moving from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration; requires energy **What are acids and bases?** - An acid is a molecule that increases the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution - A base is a molecule that decreases the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution  Neutralization reactions - a chemical reaction between an acid and a base - Ex: the reaction between stomach acid and antacid - Stomach acid has a Ph of around 0.75 which is too low - Antacid has a Ph of around 11 which is too high - When stomach acid and antacid react, they neutralize each other, and the pH of the solution is brought to a more neutral value. 1. Which of the following is located in the nucleus of atoms? A. Protons and electrons B. **Protons and neutrons (electrons orbit around it)** C. Electrons and neutrons D. Only electrons Nurse hub questions I need to review: 1. What does the law of segregation state? That alleles segregate during gametogenesis and reunite during the fertilization process 2. A lipid or fat molecule can be broken down into fatty acids and\_\_\_? (glycerol) 3. Go over kilo, pico, nano, and whatever that stuff is about 4. What bonds would you see between nitrogenous bases? Hydrogen bonds (note: ionic bonds are between ions) 5. Which of the following is the most accurate description of the link between chromosomes and DNA? Chromosomes include numerous genes, each of which is made up of a DNA sequence 6. Diffusion is which of the following? The net movement of atoms from high to low; osmosis is an example; gas exchange is an example; diffusion is a passive 7. REVIEW HORMONES SERIOUSLY 8. The \_\_\_ is the blood vessel that carries oxygen-depleted blood away from the heart. Pulmonary artery 9. The generation of tension in a muscle is called \_\_\_\_. Contraction (correct) 10. Go over the functions of the organs in the digestive system and all systems 11. Which of the following is the process by which gametes divide and produce half the number of chromosomes in a somatic cell? Meiosis 12. Which of the following is not true about thermoregulation? Contraction of arrector pili muscles facilitates vasodilation 13. Which of the following is correct about muscle contraction? Sarcomere shorten, actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, neurotransmitters stimulate muscle contraction, muscle contraction requires ATP 14. GO OVER HORMONES!!! 15. What is not true about the reproductive hormones? LH is produced by the posterior pituitary gland 16. Remember veins are smaller than arteries and they have valves, arteries DO NOT HAVE VALVES 17. REMEMBER HORMONES ARE WHERE THEY COME FROM 18. Remember that increased membrane thickness makes it harder for blood flow to occur 19. A diagram of a human brain Description automatically generated