Chapter 2 Anatomy PDF

. Basic Chemistry\ Energy -- capacity to do work\ o Doesn't have mass or takes up space\ o Kinetic -- energy in action\ o Potential -- stored energy\ o Forms of energy\ ♣ Chemical -- energy in bonds\ ♣ Electrical -- movement of charged particles\ ♣ Mechanical -- moving matter\ ♣ Radiant or electro...

. Basic Chemistry\ Energy -- capacity to do work\ o Doesn't have mass or takes up space\ o Kinetic -- energy in action\ o Potential -- stored energy\ o Forms of energy\ ♣ Chemical -- energy in bonds\ ♣ Electrical -- movement of charged particles\ ♣ Mechanical -- moving matter\ ♣ Radiant or electromagnetic -- heat or light\ II. Atoms and Elements\ Element -- smallest substance by nature\ Elements made up of atoms\ ♣ Atomic Symbol -- one or two letter code\ Structure of Atom\ o Proton -- positive charge, large\ o Neutron -- neutral charge, large\ o Electron -- negative charge, small\ Number of protons equals number of electrons\ o Located around a nucleus\ Two models\ o Planetary -- simple version, Old-School version\ o Orbital (electron cloud) -- everywhere electron could possibly be\ Identifying Elements\ o Atomic number -- number of protons\ o Mass number - protons weight plus neutrons weight\ o All members of one element have same number of protons\ o Isotope -- different number of neutrons\ o Radioisotopes -- unstable and decompose into more stable version\ Used as label\ III. Molecules and Compounds\ Molecule -- two or more atoms bonded together\ o Usually small Compound -- two or more different kinds of atoms/molecules bonded\ together\ o Tend to be big chains\ Mixtures -- two or more compounds that are physically intermixed\ o Solutions\ ♣ Homogeneous -- equally distributed\ ♣ Solvent -- substance in greatest amount\ ♣ Solute -- substance dissolved/diluted\ ♣ Ways to measure solutions\ Percent of solute -- 50% of solution\ Milligrams per deciliter -- (mg/dl)\ Molarity -- mol/liter\ o Colloids (emulsion)\ ♣ Heterogeneous -- unequally distributed\ ♣ Cannot see particles\ ♣ Sol-gel forms -- can go from solid to liquid back to solid\ o Suspensions\ ♣ Heterogeneous\ ♣ Can see particles\ Ex. Sand in water\ ♣ Blood is a bodily suspension\ Differences between compounds and Mixtures\ o Mixtures do not involve chemical bonding\ o Mixtures can be separated back into original substances\ IV. Chemical Bonds\ Role of electrons in chemical bonding\ o Stay in areas called electron shells\ o Shell 1 holds two electrons\ o Shell 2 and up hold eight electrons\ Outermost shell called the valence shell\ o Depends on the element, H valence is different from C\ o Electrons in valence have greatest potential energy\ ♣ Weakest hold from nucleus\ Octet rule\ o Every atom wants 8 electrons in the valence shell\ o Except shell 1 wants 2\ ♣ Ex. H, He\ Types of Bond\ o Ionic -- charged bond, no sharing\ o Covalent -- electrons are shared between valence shells\ ♣ Single bond -- shares 2 electrons\ ♣ Double bond shares 4 electrons\ ♣ Triple bond shares 6 electrons\ ♣ Non-polar bond -- equal sharing, no charge made\ ♣ Polar bond -- unequal sharing, charge is made\ o Hydrogen bond -- polar bond from unequal sharing of hydrogen\ ♣ Water has strong tendency for hydrogen bonding\ Chemical reactions -- occur when bonds are made, broken or rearranged\ o Reactant -- substances entering into reaction\ o Product -- substances made\ ♣ Can be reversible\ V. Chemical equations\ Energy Flow\ o Exergonic -- release of energy\ ♣ Products have less potential energy, catabolic\ o Endergonic -- intake of energy\ ♣ Products have more potential energy, anabolic\ Catalysts\ o Increases the rate of reaction without being chemically changed\ ♣ Does not participate in the reaction\ VI. Biochemistry\ Biochemistry -- study of chemical composition and reactions of living matter\ o Inorganic -- absence of carbon (exception is Carbon dioxide)\ o Organic -- contains carbon\ Inorganic Compounds\ Water\ o Most abundant inorganic molecule\ ♣ 60-80% of cell\ o High heat capacity\ ♣ Ability to take in energy without increasing in temperature ♣ Calorie\ o High Heat of vaporization\ ♣ Needs a lot of energy to break hydrogen bonds to for gas\ o Polar solvent\ ♣ Dissolves polar and ionic bonds\ ♣ Forms a sphere around the solute\ o Reactivity\ ♣ Necessary for hydrolysis and dehydration reactions\ o Cushioning\ ♣ Layer of water protects organs from physical trauma\ Salts\ o Salts are ionic bonded compounds\ o Can dissociated into a positively charged (cation) and negatively\ charged (anion)\ o Electrolytes -- all ions\ ♣ Are able to conduct electrical currents\ o Ions have specialized functions in the body\ Acid and Bases\ o Considered electrolytes b/c ionize and dissociate in water\ o Acid\ ♣ Proton donor -- release Hydrogen ions, bare proton\ o Base\ ♣ Proton receptor -- they pick up the hydrogen ion\ Most have hydroxyl ion\ Ph: Acid and base concentration\ o ph scale that measure the concentration of H+\ ♣ Ranges from 0-14\ ♣ -Log scale so every increase is 10x as less H+\ o Acids have low ph, 0-6\ o Neutral is 7, means there are equal number of H+ to OH-\ o Base (Alkaline) are high ph of 8-14\ Neutralization\ o Acid and base mixed together yield a salt and water\ Buffer\ o Able to resist or stop changes in ph\ o Can release a H+ ion if ph gets to basic\ o Can accept a H+ if ph gets to acidic\ VII. Organic Compounds\ Synthesis and Hydrolysis of Carbon\ o Organic compounds contain carbon, carbon is electroneutral\ o Needs to form 4 bonds\ o Polymer -- large compounds that are made up of repeating monomers\ ♣ Synthesized by dehydration synthesis\ ♣ Broken down by hydrolysis reactions\ Carbohydrates -- Sugar and Starches\ o Must contain C, H, O\ ♣ The oxygen and hydrogen must be 1:2\ ♣ Ex. Glucose C6H12O6\ o Monosaccharides\ ♣ Simple sugars carbon\ ♣ Monomer unit of carbohydrates\ o Disaccharides\ ♣ Double sugar\ ♣ Too large to pass through cell membrane\ o Polysaccharides\ ♣ Carbohydrate polymer\ ♣ Starch and glycogen\ Lipids\ o Contains C, H and O and sometimes P\ o Insoluble in water\ o Triglycerides or neutral fats\ ♣ Fats when solid and oils when liquid\ ♣ Made of 3 fatty acid tails on a glycerol head\ ♣ Uses\ Energy Storage\ Protection\ Insulation\ o Saturated fatty Acid\ ♣ All bonds are single\ ♣ Able to layer on top of each other\ ♣ Solid at room temperature\ o Unsaturated fatty Acid\ ♣ Contains a double bond\ ♣ Forms kinks and unable to layer\ ♣ Liquid at room temperature\ o Phopholipids\ ♣ Modified triglyceride\ ♣ Glycerol with two fatty tails and one phosphate group\ ♣ Makes a molecule that polar on one end and non-polar on other\ ♣ Make up cell membrane\ o Steroid\ ♣ Base of 4 locking rings\ ♣ Used for cholesterol, vitamin D, hormones\ ♣ Important in cell membrane\ o Eicosanoids\ ♣ Many different ones\ ♣ Most important is protoglandins\ Inflammation and blood pressure\ Proteins\ o 20-30% of cell mass\ o Contain C, H, O, and N\ o Bonds that hold proteins together are called peptide bonds\ o Have 4 structural levels\ o Amino Acids and Peptide bonds\ ♣ Amino Acid are building blocks of proteins\ ♣ 20 different amino acids\ Contain both amine (base) and acid group\ Differ by the R group, determines the amino acid\ o Structural Levels of Proteins\ ♣ Primary: linear sequence of amino acids\ ♣ Secondary: interactions between amino groups from H-bonds\ Alpha helix -- coils around\ Beta pleated sheets -- accordion ribbons\ ♣ Tertiary -- interactions between the secondary structures\ ♣ Quaternary -- 2 or more polymers interact\ o Fibrous and Globular Proteins\ ♣ Fibrous -- strand-like\ Water-insoluble and very stable\ Provide support and strength\ ♣ Globular -- compact and spherical\ Water-soluble\ Contain an active site for specific functions\ o Protein Denaturation\ ♣ Denaturation -- globular proteins unfold and lose their function\ Active site becomes unless\ Fibrous proteins more stable and harder to denature\ ♣ Causes by increase in temperature or ph changes\ ♣ Usually reversible if not to extreme\ o Enzymes and Enzyme Activity\ ♣ Enzyme -- Globular proteins that act as catalysts\ Regulate and increase the speed of a reaction\ Lowers the amount of energy needed\ Allows for millions of reactions per minute\ ♣ Characteristics of Enzymes\ Most enzymes are holoenzymes\ ♣ Apoenzyme -- protein portion\ ♣ Cofactor (metal ion) or Coenzyme (organic\ molecule)\ Enzymes are specific\ ♣ Only act on substrate specific to that enzyme\ End in -ase, name usually tells what substrate\ ♣ Lactase, DNA polymerase\ ♣ Enzyme Action\ Lowers activation energy\ 3 steps to lower activation energy\ ♣ Substrate binds to active site\ ♣ Complex undergoes rearrangement\ ♣ Results in final product\ ♣ Product is released\ o Nucleic Acids\ ♣ Composed of C, H, O, N, and P\ ♣ Polymers made up of nucleotides\ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)\ Ribonucleic acid (RNA)\ ♣ DNA -- genetic blueprint for protein synthesis\ Double-stranded helix located in all cells\ Nucleotides: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine\ Specific bonds must be made:\ ♣ A-T and G-C\ ♣ RNA\ Single stranded and active outside the nucleus\ Contains ribose instead of deoxyribose\ Thymine is replaced with Uracil\ Three types\ ♣ Messenger RNA (mRNA)\ ♣ Transfer RNA (tRNA)\ ♣ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)\ ♣ ATP\ Adenosine triphosphate\ Usable chemical energy stored in phosphate bonds\ Adenine nucleotide with phosphate bonds\ ♣ Phosphate bonds can be broken into small\ molecules\ ♣ ADP -- Adenosine Diphosphate\ ♣ AMP -- Adenosine Monophosphate