Human Development PDF

TABLIZO, KHYLA ESHECKA A. DEVPSY 2B - SET B 08/22/2024 Chapter Summary: Human Development, Fifteenth Edition By: D. Papalia and...

TABLIZO, KHYLA ESHECKA A. DEVPSY 2B - SET B 08/22/2024 Chapter Summary: Human Development, Fifteenth Edition By: D. Papalia and G. Martorell [Chapter 1] HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: AN EVOLVING FIELD Human development is a scientific investigation that focuses on people’s organized processes of stability and change. Since humans are always changing, development is a lifelong process that will last until the very last moment of life. A single cell divides itself and itself again in a coordinated , well-organized manner. The entire human life span, from conception to death, is referred to by researchers as “womb to tomb” when discussing life span development. Positive developments include learning to use the toilet on one’s own. Negative developments include wetting the bed following a traumatic event. As the study of human development advanced, its objectives became add not only the description but also the explanation, prediction, and intervention. Development is a messy process. It is molded by interacting arcs of influence and has many facets. As a result, it is best to understand development by incorporating ideas from many theoretical perspectives, and is best researched across a variety of academic fields. BASIC CONCEPTS IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT The primary domains of the self are studied by developmental scientists: physical, cognitive, and psychosocial. Physical development: Growth of the body and brain, including patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health. Cognitive development: Pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development: Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships. Erikson’s eight-stage theory, the socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego, or self. Social construction: A concept or practice that may appear natural and obvious to those who accept it but that in reality is Developmental Psychology 2B an invention of a particular culture or society. Physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development are all closely related, even though we discuss them separately. However, we must draw some boundaries in order to comprehend their complexities. We thus divide these zones of influence. Despite this, it’s crucial to keep in mind that every facet of growth influences the other one. Understanding the various forces that weave a complex and tangled web around human development necessitates carefully considering how these influences interact. The division of a person’s life into phases is a social construction: an idea or method that is a creation exclusive to a certain society or culture. Despite the fact that we could examine phases of the life span, including childhood, adolescence, although many cultures consider adulthood and old age to be unchanging chronological categories, the truth is that these ideas may not exist in many of them, or if they do, they are conceptualized differently. Typical Major Developments in Eight Period of Human Development AGE PERIOD PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENTS COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTS PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS Prenatal Period (conception Basic body structures and Abilities to learn and Fetus responds to the to birth) organs form; brain growth remember and to respond to mother's voice and develops spurt begins. The genetic sensory stimuli are a preference for it. endowment interacts with developing. environmental influences from the start. Infancy and Toddlerhood All senses and body systems Abilities to learn and Attachments to parents and (birth to 3) operate at birth to varying remember are present even others. Self-awareness degrees. The brain is in early weeks. Symbols and develops. Interest in other extremely sensitive to ability to solve problems children increases. changes in its surroundings develop by the end of second and continues to grow in year. Comprehension and complexity. Physical language develops faster. maturation and motor skill development are quick. Early Childhood (age 3 to 6) Growth is steady; appearance Cognitive immaturity results Gender identity develops. becomes more slender and in some illogical ideas about Self-concept and  proportions more adultlike. the world. Memory and understanding of emotions Handedness appears, language improve, and become more complex. Play appetite diminishes, and intelligence becomes more becomes more imaginative. sleep problems are common. predictable. Altruism, aggression, and fearfulness are common. Middle Childhood (6 to 11) Growth slows. Respiratory Egocentrism diminishes. Coregulation reflects gradual illnesses are common, but Children begin to think shift in control from parents health is generally better logically but concretely. to child. Peers assume central than at any life span time. Cognitive gains permit importance. Self complex Strength improves. children to benefit from becomes more complex. formal schooling. Adolescence (11 to 20) Physical growth and other Ability to think abstractly and Search for identity, including changes are rapid and use scientific reasoning sexual identity, becomes profound. Reproductive develops. Immature thinking central. Peer groups may maturity occurs. Major health persists in some attitudes exert a positive or negative risks arise from behavioral and behaviors. influence. issues. Emerging and Young Physical condition peaks, Thought and moral Personality traits and styles Adulthood (20 to 40) then declines slightly. judgments become more become relatively stable, but Lifestyle choices influence complex. changes in personality may health. be influenced by life stages and event. Intimate relationships and personal lifestyles are established Middle Adulthood (20 to 65) Slow deterioration of sensory Mental abilities peak; Sense of identity continues to abilities, health, stamine, and expertise and practical develop; midlife transition Developmental Psychology 2B strength may begin, but problem-solving skills are may occur. Dual individual differences are high. Creative output may responsibilities of caring for wide. Women experience decline but improve in children and parents may menopause. quality. cause stress. Late Adulthood (65 and over) Most people are healthy and Most people are mentally Retirement from workforce active, although health and alert. Although intelligence may occur and may offer new physical abilities generally and memory may deteriorate options for use of time. decline. Slowing of reaction in some areas, most people time affects some aspects of find ways to compensate. functioning Developmentalists contend that, at least in the context of contemporary life, typical development cannot occur unless certain basic needs are satisfied and specific tasks are mastered, despite the fact that individuals differ in how they respond to the distinctive events and problems of each period. INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT Influences on development can be described in two primary ways; heredity and biological process. One way to think of heredity is as the genetic equivalent of the dice. It is made up of the inborn traits and characteristics received from their biological parents. Other factors originate from the external environment, beginning with the womb environment during conception and continuing all the way through life Numerous common developmental milestones in infancy and early childhood, including learning to walk and speech, are linked to the body and brain’s maturation—the course of a natural sequence of alterations in behavior and physical state. Individual differences: Differences in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes. Heredity: Inborn traits or characteristics inherited from the biological parents. Environment: Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development. Maturation: Unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes. Human beings are social beings. They grow within a social and historical framework for the start. The best way to define families is as diverse groups. Nuclear family: Two-generational kins, economic, and household units consisting of one or two parents and their biological children, adopted children, or stepchildren. Extended family: Multigenerational kinship network of parents, children, and other relatives, sometimes living together in an extended-family household.  Polygamy: Family structure in which one spouse, most commonly a man, is married to more than one partner. Socioeconomic status (SES): Combination of economic and social factors describing an individual or family, including income, education, and occupation. Culture: A society’s or group’s total way of life, including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical products all learned behavior, passed on from parents to children. Individualistic culture: A culture in which people tend to prioritize personal goals ahead of collective goals and to view themselves as distinct individuals. Collectivistic culture: A culture in which people tend to prioritize collaborative social goals ahead of individual goals and to view themselves in the context of their social relationships. Ethnic group: A group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, or national origins, which contribute to a sense of shared identity. Ethnic minorities: Ethnic groups with national or cultural traditions different from the majority of the population. Not all psychological factors are applied in the same way. Racism and discrimination are two significant factors that have different effects on BIPOC. Black lives matter: a political and social movement for a curse moment. BIPOC: Acronym for Black, Indigenous and people of color.. Race: A grouping of humans distinguished by their outward physical characteristics or social qualities from other groups. Not a biological construct. Ethnic gloss: Overgeneralization about an ethnic or cultural group that obscures differences within the group. Two categories of normative influences—biological or environmental events that have a similar impact on most or all members of a society and events that affect specific individuals—must be examined in order to comprehend parallels and divergences in development. Normative: Characteristic of an event that occurs in a similar way for most people in a group. Historical Geeration: A group of people strongly influenced by a major historical event during their formative period. Cohort: A group of people born at about the same time. Nonnormative: Characteristic of an unusual event that happens to a particular person or a typical event that happens at an unusual time of life. Imprinting: Instinctive form of learning in which, during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the mother. Critical period: Specific time when a given event or its absence has a specific impact on development. Plasticity (1) Range of modifiability of performance. (2) Modifiability, or “molding,” of the brain through experience. Developmental Psychology 2B sensitive periods Times in development when a person is particularly open to certain kinds of experiences. Life-Span Development Principles: 1. Development is lifelong 2. Development is multidimensional 3. Development is multidirectional 4. Relative influences of biology and culture shift over the life span 5. Developmental, btw month Development incloves involces 6. Development shows plasticity 7. Development is influenced by the historical and cultural context [Chapter 2] BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES A scientific theory of development is a collection of ideas or claims that make sense and are intended to explain and characterize development as well as forecast potential behaviors. Information gathered through research is orgnazied and explained by theories. Hypotheses: Possible explanations for the phenomena used to predict the outcome of research. Issue 1: Development Active or Reactive? - According to psychologists who believe in reactive development theory, a hungry sponge that absorbs events and gradually changes as a result of this input. Psychologists who believe in active development contend that people are driven to learn about their surroundings and create experiences for themselves. - Mechanistic model: Model that views human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli. Psychologists develop two contrasting models of development: mechanistic and organismic. The researchers of mechanistics want to identify the factors that make people behave as they do. - Organismic model: Views human development as internally initiated by an active organism and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages. Since human behavior is thought of as an organic whole, it cannot be predicted by dissecting it into discrete reactions to stimuli in the environment. For organicists, even though it may not always be apparent, development has an underlying, systematic structure. Issue 2: Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous? - Quantitative change: Change in number or amount, such as in height, weight, size of vocabulary, or frequency of communication. Development proceeds continuously, as learning theorists and information processing theorists propose.  - Qualitative change: Discontinuous change in kind, structure, or organization. Whether it occurs in distinct stages, as Freud, Erikson, and Piaget maintained. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Five major perspectives on human development: 1) Psychoanalytic; focuses on unconscious emotions and drives; 2) Learning: studies observable behavior; 3) Cognitive: analyzes thought processes; 4) Contextual: emphasizes the impact of the historical, social, and cultural context; 5) Evolutionary/Sociobiological: considers evolutionary and biological underpinnings of behavior. Perspective 1: Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic perspective: View of human development as shaped by unconscious forces that motivate human behavior. Psychosexual development: In Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of childhood personality development in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals. Psychosocial development: Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships. In Erikson’s eight-stage theory, the socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego, or self Perspective 2: Learning Learning perspective: View of human development that holds that changes in behavior result from experience or from adaptation to the environment. Behaviorism: Learning theory that emphasizes the predictable role of environment in causing observable behavior. - Classical conditioning: Learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. - Operant conditioning: Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences. Learning based on reinforcement or punishment. - Reinforcement: The process by which a behavior is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. - Punishment: The process by which a behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of repetition. Social learning theory: Theory that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models. Also called social cognitive theory. - Reciprocal determinism: Bandura’s term for bidirectional forces that affect development. Developmental Psychology 2B - Observational learning: Learning through watching the behavior of others. - Self-efficacy: Sense of one’s capability to master challenges and achieve goals. Perspective 3: Cognitive Cognitive perspective: View that thought processes are central to development. - Cognitive-stage theory: Piaget’s theory that children’s cognitive development advances in a series of four stages involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations. - Organization: Piaget’s term for the creation of categories or systems of knowledge. Mnemonic strategy of categorizing material to be remembered. - Schemes: Piaget’s term for organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations. - Adaptation: Piaget’s term for adjustment to new information about the environment, achieved through processes of assimilation and accommodation. - Assimilation: Piaget’s term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure. - Accommodation; Piaget’s term for changes in a cognitive structure to include new information. - Equilibration: Piaget’s term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation. Sociocultural theory: Vygotsky’s theory of how contextual factors affect children’s development. - Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Vygotsky’s term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help. - Scaffolding: Temporary support to help a child master a task. Information-processing approach: Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information. Approach to the study of cognitive development that analyzes processes involved in perceiving and handling information. Perspective 4: Contextual Contextual perspective: View of human development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context. - Bioecological theory: Bronfenbrenner’s approach to understanding processes and contexts of human development that identifies five levels of environmental influence. - Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory: A microsystem consists of the everyday environment of home, work, school, or neighborhood, mesosystem is the interlocking influence of microsystems, exosystem consists of interactions between a microsystem and an outside system or institution, macrosystem consists of overarching cultural patterns, such as dominant beliefs, ideologies, and economic and political systems, and chronosystem represents the dimension of time. Perspective 5: Evolutionary/Sociobiological Evolutionary/Sociobiological perspective: View of human development that focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of behavior. - Ethology: Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species. - Evolutionary psychology: Application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual behavior. RESEARCH METHOD There are two methodological traditions that human development researchers follow: quantitative and qualitative. Every one of these customs has distinct objectives and methods of perceiving and interpreting reality, and each highlights various methods of gathering and examining data. Quantitative research: Research that deals with objectively measurable data. - Scientific method: System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry, which includes identifying a problem to be studied, formulating a hypothesis to be tested by research, collecting data, analyzing the data, forming tentative conclusions, and disseminating findings. Qualitative research: Research that focuses on nonnumerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs. - Population: The entire pool of individuals under study from which a sample is drawn and to which findings may apply. - Sample: Group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study. - Random selection: Selection of a sample in such a way that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen. - Random sample: A sample of individuals chosen in such a way that every individual in the population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen. - WEIRD Acronym (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic) for the type of societies from which research samples are typically drawn. Forms of Data Collection Self-Reports: Diaries and logs are the most basic type of self-report. Naturalistic observation: Research method in which behavior is studied in natural settings without intervention or Developmental Psychology 2B manipulation. Laboratory observation: Research method in which all participants are observed under the same controlled conditions. - Observer bias: Any expectations, beliefs, or personal preferences of a researcher that unintentionally influence their findings. Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research Qualitative research has advantages and disadvantages when compared to quantitative research that follows the scientific method. Comparatively to quantitative research, qualitative research is typically less rigorous and more prone to bias. Results from qualitative research are more replicable and less generalizable than those from quantitative research because samples are typically smaller and not random. Qualitative information may be quantitatively examined; for instance, by statistically examining transcripts of interviews or videotaped observations to determine the frequency of particular themes or behaviors transpire. On the other hand, qualitative research can shed light on quantitative data; for instance, through interviews meant to look at the attitudes and motives of kids who achieve great results on achievement tests. Basic Research Designs Four basic designs used in developmental research are case studies, ethnographic studies, correlational studies, and experiments. Case study: Study of a single subject, such as an individual or family Ethnographic study: In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation. Participant observation: Research method in which the observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed. Correlational study: Research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists. Experiment: Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. Groups and variables: A common way to conduct an experiment is to divide the participants into two kinds of groups. - Experimental group: In an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under study. - Control group: In an experiment, a group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under study - Independent variable: In an experiment, the condition over which the experimenter has direct control. - Dependent variable: In an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable. - Operational definition: Definition stated solely in terms of the operations or procedures used to produce or measure a phenomenon.  - Random assignment: Assignment of participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group. Laboratory, Field, and Natural Experiments: There are various ways to conduct research, and one essential distinction is between laboratory, field, and natural experiments. Developmental Research Designs Developmental psychologists have devised a number of techniques to study change over time, which is one of the main objectives of developmental research. - Cross-sectional study: Study designed to assess age-related differences, in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion. - Longitudinal study: Study designed to assess age changes in a sample over time. - Sequential study: Study design that combines crosssectional and longitudinal techniques. RESEARCH ISSUES Psychologists are increasingly concerned with incorporating diversity into scientific research. The open science movement calls for increased integrity, reproducibility, and accessibility of scientific work. Researchers seek to resolve ethical issues on the basis of principles of beneficence, respect, and justice. Standards for protection of children used in research cover such principles as parental informed consent and protection from harm or jeopardy to the child’s well-being. Developmental Psychology 2B