Unit Three: Politics, Economy, and Society in Ethiopia and the Horn (PDF)

UNIT THREE POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY  3.1. Emergence of States What does a state mean? ?  State is the highest and most powerful political organ of society and controlled by government.  Stat...

UNIT THREE POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY  3.1. Emergence of States What does a state mean? ?  State is the highest and most powerful political organ of society and controlled by government.  States arose independently in different places and at different times.  State refers to an autonomous political unit with population, defined territory, sovereignty and government with the power to decree and enforce laws  What were the elements of state formation?  The formation of states has 4 basic elements. Such as: -People - defined Territory -Government and -Sovereignty  cont’d  Factors for the emergence of states One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture  sedentary way of life was begun during Neolithic /New Stone Age  cover from 10, 000-6, 000 B.P  during Neolithic, mobile way of life was replaced by sedentary way of life  Therefore, sedentary way of life is important factors for the beginning of sedentary agriculture  Cont’d Religion was another important factor for the emergence of states Early societies formed theocracy states meant that states often assumed the character of a theocracy (ruled by priests). Gradually, religious elites were replaced by chiefs It indicate that the genesis of classes and states.  Cont’d  Another important factor for the emergence of states was class differentiation  In the past, many classes were emerged such as farmer, craftsmen, trader, priest, chief or headman, slave and others  Division of labor was created by the needing of produce surplus products  E.g. Farmers were needed batter agricultural tools to produce surplus products and clothes with the artisans/craftsmen who were able to specialize in the production of agricultural tools and clothes.  Then, craftsmen and farmers were met in order to exchange their products  Cont’d  Gradually, some peoples intervene as intermediaries to buying the products of craftsmen and farmers and then to sell the products of craftsmen for farmers and the products of farmers for craftsmen in the pre-determined places or markets  As a result, a class of traders would emerge  Therefore, states were formed mainly through the expansion of agriculture that gave rise to class differentiation.Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated the dev't of states.  Cont’d  Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa took place early state formation.  From small beginnings, such states gradually developed into powerful kingdoms and even empires with a well-demarcated social structure. What is the difference b/n kingdom and empire?  Kingdom is a country ruled by a King or Queen.  Empires is a group of countries or states ruled by a single King or Queen.  3.2. Ancient States 3.2.1. North and Northeast A. Punt  Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.  It was one of the ancient states of Ethiopia and the Horn  It was one of the pre-Aksumite states of Ethiopia and the Horn  The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings  B/c hieroglyphic describes series of naval expeditions  Cont’d  As a result, d/t Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt for expeditions and then they collect ebony, gold and silver alloy, frank incense, spices, ivory, live monkeys, giraffes and others  The best described and illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by the order of the famous Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), whose expedition is documented at her tomb in Dier El Bahri.  E.g. Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.) was one of the famous Egyptian Queens  She sent five ships to punt under the leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat, but warmly welcomed by the Puntites King called Perehu, his wife Ati, sons, daughters and followers  Cont’d  However, ancient state of Punt and Egyptians exchanged their products through land and sea trade routes  The products of Punt included iron, gold, silver, bronze, medicine, ornaments and so on  The products of Egypt included axes, daggers, bracelets, swords, knives, clothes and like  Scholars have not reached agreement about the exact location of Punt.  There are 3 arguments brought about the location of the ancient state of Punt  Cont’d 1. Some scholars argued that Punt towards northern or northeastern Somalia  b/c the varieties of incense and myrrh mentioned in the writings 2. Others scholars argued that Punt more towards Northern Ethiopia  B/c of gold, ebony and monkeys found Northern Ethiopia. 3. Some others scholars argued that Punt probably stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Guardafui.  Cont’d B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea Da’amat was another ancient state of the Horn of Africa The location of Da’amat was a little to the south of Aksum Da’amat established a very close contact with south Arabian.  For instance, its kings used the South Arabian politico-religious title called Mukarrib  Cont’d It had a strong commercial links with the outside world particularly with south Arabia and the Mediterranean world through the port of Adulis Principal god, Venus god, light god, sun god and moon god were worshipped in the Da’amat state and other pre-Aksumite cultural centers  There were a number of cultural centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea.  Cont’d  The major cultural centers of northern Ethiopia and Eritrea were Yeha, Hawulti Melazo and Addi-Seglemeni 1. Yeha it is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum It was the oldest of cultural centers in the Pre-Aksumite period It probably emerged around 1, 000 BC, as a small emporium where South Arabian merchants and their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other commodities coming from the interior. but The period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about 750 to 500 B.C.  Cont’d 2. Hawulti Melazo It is located to southeast of Aksum where stone tablets that are inscribed in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings representing herds of cattle have been excavated.  Cont’d 3. Addi-Seglemeni It is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum a stone slab is found in Addi-Seglemeni and the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered in Addi- Seglemeni.  There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Sefra, Senafe, etc.  Cont’d C. The Aksumite State  The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.  Initially, its power was limited to a relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs/surrounding. Or  At the first time, the power of Aksumite state was limited in small region.  Gradually, it expanded to all directions include large territories.  Cont’d  The center of Aksumite state was found in the northern part of Tigray now Aksum town and its surroundings.  There are 2 evidences or documents explained about the trade of Aksumite state A.The Periplus of the Eritrean Sea  According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major port of Aksum.  The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the Red Sea coast passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even further west across Takaze River  Cont’d The document also mentioned ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca.  Cont’d  The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted mainly of the natural products such as ivory, spices, gold, hippopotamus hides etc…  Aksumite state d/t manufactured goods were imported from Egypt, India, Syria, Roman empire, Persia and Asia Minor (Laodicea)  Cont’d  the imported trade items such as different kinds of garments and textiles, jewelry, metallic sheets, tools, wine, olive oil and others  Aksumite coins widely used in the internal and international trade  Adulis was the major port of Aksumite state and served as the center of international trade  Cont’d Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to speak the Greek language, the Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world. Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor).  Cont’d B. The Christian Topography  It describes about the commercial activities of the Red Sea areas.  It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant region called Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and beyond the Blue Nile. A big caravan made up of close to five hundred merchants some of them special agents of the kings of Aksum would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to exchange for gold.  Cont’d Another historical value of Cosmas’s book is its description of the ‘silent trade’ practiced in the southwestern periphery of the Aksumite Kingdom. According to this custom, the two parties exchanged their goods without verbal/ vocal communication.  Cont’d  Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the South Arabian region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture.  Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts between the two regions.  One of such known recorded conflict between Aksum and South Arabian took place around 200 A.D.  Cont’d  Gadarat was one of the Aksumite kings and played a major role in the expansion of overseas territories  Gadarat confirmed by the Sabaean inscription and Ge’ez inscription  From 3rd to 7th centuries AD, various Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze  Aksumite coins used to for internal and international trade or overseas and local transactions.  Cont’d  From 3rd to 7th centuries AD, Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum)  It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh centuries.  Aksumite ships were the main means of transporting goods. The reign of King Kaleb (r. 500-534 A.D)  Cont’d  The period Kaleb described as "the last brilliant page in the history of Aksum"  Kaleb was also known to world history for his expedition to Arabia.  He extended and controlled greater territory in South Arabia than before him.  He tried to Christianize the South Arabians in order to strengthen Ethiopian occupation in the South Arabian region  Cont’d  However, South Arabians developed an anti-Christian opposition movement.  At that time, the local prince of South Arabians Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism  He marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many Christians in the summer of 523 AD.  This event or persecution known as the "Persecution of Nagaran"  But, Kaleb supported by Byzantine  E.g. Byzantine provides ships to Kaleb for the purpose of transporting armies against Dhu Nuwas.  Cont’d  Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia that continued until his death in 570 A. D.  Then, political power transferred from King Kaleb to Gabra Masqal  Gabra Masqal consider as a successor and son of King Kaleb  In short, after King Kaleb, his son Gabra Masqal (r.535-548) came to power.  During the reign of Gabra Masqal’s, the major historical events were:  the construction of church of Dabra Damo in Tigray  Cont’d  the construction of church of Zur-Amba in Gayint and  the introduction of church music by Saint Yared Who is Saint Yared?  Saint Yared  He was born on April 25, 505 A.D in Aksum  the author of many religious songs  Cont’d  the creation of Degwa and prepared the Degwa in the 3 modes of chanting 1. Ge’ez, means the plain chant for ordinary days 2. Ezil, means a more measured beat for funerals and 3. Araray, is a lighter, free mood for great festivals.  the first to introduce the sign of Degwa and  the first to write musical notes  Cont’d  Therefore, St. Yared had a significant contribution for the development of literature and music, particularly Ethiopia church music  The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late 7thc because of internal and external challenges. What were the factors for the decline and downfall of the Aksumite state?  Cont’d 1. external factor  the expansion of Muslim Arabia to the Red see region  it led to conflict b/n the Muslim Arabs and Aksum over the control of the Red see trade  as a result, =Adulis was destroyed in 702/8thC by Muslim Arabs = Dahlak Islands was occupied by Muslim Arabs around 702 = Aksumite rulers faced loss of income obtained from Red see trade  Consequently, the Aksumite state declined economically.  cont’d  This led to the decline of its political and military power not only on the Red Sea coast but also in its interior provinces 2. Internal factor a. Power struggle among the successors of Kaleb, i.e. between Gabra Masqal and his brother Israel b. The revolt of some subjected people like Beja and Agew. -It led to Aksumite rulers failed to control effectively over the Beja and Agew people.  Cont’d c. The decline of Aksum’s military power. i.e., the powerful Aksumite generals like Hasani Daniel became powerful enough in the 9th C AD d. The state also suffered from environmental degradation, great plague infestation, and climate change. Then, declined the agricultural productivity of Aksumite e. In mid-10th C AD, the state was also attacked by a legendary "pagan Queen", Yodit (Gudit).  Cont’d  The origin of Yodit’s is unknown.  She ruled over Aksum for forty years (940-980 A.D).  She destroyed so many churches, monasteries, monuments and buildings for forty years.  She also killed the princes and princesses who had been imprisoned on the Amba of Dabra Damo.  Cont’d  During the reign of Yodit’s:  interrupted the civilization of Aksum and  Aksumite rulers were unable to restore their lost powers and prestige.  Finally, Aksumite state ended in the mid-12th C AD  However, Aksum had a profound impact upon the peoples of the Horn of Africa and on its successors i.e. the Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the Gondarine period etc. based on their civilization  Cont’d  Some of its achievements includes  Developed indigenous script and calendar as well as  EOC hymns and chants, paintings  urbanization  sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, rock-hewn churches…) etc.  It also developed complex administrative and governance system, and agricultural system including irrigation etc.  Cont’d D. Zagwe Dynasty  After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in the territory of the Agaw, one of the ancient inhabitants of the land between the Eritrean Plateau and Jema River, and to the west up to the Blue Nile valleys.  Agaw elites had been the opportunity to take part in Aksumite state structure serving as soldiers and functionaries for at least four  Cont’d  After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.  Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control of power.  In mid-12th C, Zagwe Dynasty founded by Mara Takla Haymanot (Zewge Mikaele)  Cont’d  Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc.  The Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from c. 1150 to 1270.  The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).  The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.  Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region.  Cont’d  The main items of export included slaves, ivory, gold, animal skins, rare spices and the like.  The main items of import included the product of textiles, silver, various types of drags and newly minted coins, copper etc.  Therefore, the port of Zeila was the main port of the Ethiopian kingdom during Zagwe Dynasty Furthermore, the Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez.  Cont’d Achievements of Zagwe dynasty: 1. In literature  Translated some religious works from Arabic into Ge’ez 2. In architecture  constructed churches and monasteries  E.g. the church of Lalibela  Cont’d  Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches  Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela recognized by UNESCO as part of the World Cultural Heritage.  Based on their location, the churches can be grouped into three.  Cont’d Group I Group II Group III 1. Bete Madahne 7. Bete Gabriel-Rufael 11. Bete Giyorgis Alam 2. Bete Maryam 8. Bete Marqoryos 3. Bete Masqal 9. Bete Abba Libanos 4. Bete Danagil 10. Bete Amanuel 5. Bete Mikael 6. Bete Golgota  Cont’d  Group-one  They are built very close together  There is a channel connecting them  Group two  They are located about some distances from group one.  Cont’d  Group three  It isolated from other churches or from group 1 and 2  It has cross-shaped roof  It is also well-designed and well-finished one  Based on the nature and style of their construction, the churches of Lalibela divided into three groups.  Cave Churches, Semi-hewn Churches and Hewn (Monolithic) churches  Cont’d 1. Cave Churches  They are similar to a natural cave  They have one entrance and  Some internal divisions and decorations  E.g. Bete Masqal is a cave church  Cont’d 2. Semi-hewn Churches  They are not totally separated from the surrounding rock  Their roofs or walls are still attached to the rock  E.g. Bete Golgota, Bete Danagil, Bete Libanos and Bete Marqoryos are semi-monolithic churches  Cont’d 3. Hewn (Monolithic) churches  They are completely separated (carved out) from the surrounding rock or living rock.  They are hewn on all sides including the roof and the outside.  E.g. Bete Amanuel, Bête Madhane Alam, Bete Maryam and Bete Giyorgis are hewn churches.  Among the 11 churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest churches  the 11 churches of Lalibela built at Roha by Lalibela  Cont’d Why Lalibela constructed so many churches of varied size and type in one place?  Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem.  B/c he mitigate or even avoid difficulties journey for Ethiopian Christians to the Holy Lands.  Ethiopian Christians went to Jerusalem to visit the Holy Land  They traveled through the deserts of Sudan and Egypt or passing through Muslim countries to Jerusalem.  Cont’d  Many of them lost their life before arriving to Jerusalem.  King Lalibela knew this problem  So, he wanted to build another/second Jerusalem in Ethiopia to mitigate or even avoid the difficulties journey for Ethiopian Christians to the Holy Lands  Therefore, the Zagwe rulers more attention to the construction of churches and monasteries than to the organization of army.  Cont’d What were the factors for the downfall of the Zagwe Dynasty?  The major factors for the downfall of the Zagwe Dynasty were 1. Political /royal Succession  For instance, power struggle =b/n Harbe and Lalibela = Yitbarek and his nephew Ne’akuto Le’ab  As a result, the dynasty was weakened by internal political crisis.  Cont’d 2. Anti-Zagwe movement/opposition  groups claiming descent from the ancient the rulers of Aksum considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate rulers”/successors based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba.  The legend was in turn based on a book known as Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings) that was translated from Coptic to Arabic and then into Ge’ez  b/c =the rulers of Zagwe did not have the line of King Solomon and Queen of Shaba or there is no the descendant of King Solomon and Queen of Shaba and  =the Zagwe rulers had illegally taken power from the legitimate “Solomonic” kings of Aksum  Cont’d  Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od, Yekuno Amlak defeated and killed Yetbarek in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state power proclaiming the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.  Therefore, Punt, Da’amat, Aksum and Zagwe dynasty refers to north and northeast states of Ethiopia and the Horn  3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States 3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat A. Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River.  It was founded in the eighth century and had early connections with Damot. B. Damot: was a strong kingdom  expanded its territories into south of Abay, north of Lake Turkana, west of Awash and east of Didessa.  Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.  Cont’d C. Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.  The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).  Enarya's kingship was a divine one:  The king (Hinnare Tato) was secluded and considered as sacred.  The real power rested with Mikretcho (council)  Cont’d D. Gafat: It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Harari and the Gurage.  It is not clear available records that Gafat formed a “state” or not, but  Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.  As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle  The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of Awalamo. 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates  After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim communities and states had been established at many locations.  These states include: A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid set up the Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.  He claimed decent from Meca  Cont’d B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century.  Economically, people cultivated wheat and barley, fruits, and herds of cattle, sheep and goats. C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and WabiShebelle  It was much smaller than Ifat, but resembled/similar it in many aspects.  Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for transaction  Cont’d D. Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.  It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River  Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.  It’s one of economic activity was trade  Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc.  It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.  Cont’d E. Ifat: was a state located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate.  It was established by Umar Walasma, who claimed descent from Hashamite clan and said to have come from Arabia between 1271 and 1285.  Its inhabitants cultivated wheat, sorghum, millet and teff, and animal husbandry.  Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant 3.3. External Contacts  Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C.  These relations may be the region’s earliest contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.  It had very close relations with all commercially active South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C.  Cont’d  The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern of relation between the region and Egypt.  b/c Egypt was begun sent bishop to Ethiopia  until 1959, Ethiopia received bishop from Egypt  Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt, the relations of Ethiopia and the Horn with Egypt were fairly smooth and friendly.  Cont’d  After the introduction of Islam into Egypt, the relations of Ethiopia and the Horn with Egypt began to deteriorate  b/c Islamic religion became the dominant religion of Egypt  it led to the number of Egyptian Christians were reduced  E.g., religious minorities were persecuted when Mamluk came to power  Cont’d  Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum established close relationship with the East Roman or Byzantine Empire for shared common commercial interest in the Red Sea area against their rival Persians.  Yet, in the seven century, this relation became complicated and began to deteriorate.  Cont’d  B/c the rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through the Near and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley to control the Red see trade  It led to the decline of Aksumite land routes and shipping lines.  b/c Adulis was destroyed by Muslim Arabs = Dahlak Islands was occupied by Muslim Arabs  Cont’d Generally, Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt, Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World and South Arabian Kingdoms either trade or religion purpose  However, the relation b/n Ethiopia and Christians European was the effect of crusade war  Cont’d  crusade war fought between the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the Middle East to control Jerusalem/Holy land  Europeans began to consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very powerful and wealthy state existing in the Horn of Africa.  Consequently, they wanted to use this imaginary strong Christian power against the Muslim powers in the Holy land  Cont’d  According to the myth, a very rich and powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John  But, the geographical location of the country of Prester John was not known to Europe for over a century  Then, they began to search the location of the Kingdom or Prester John  As a result, they began to make an alliance with Ethiopian Christian Kingdom  Therefore, Ethiopia had relation with Christians Europe based on the effect of crusade war  3.4. Economic Formations A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System  Agriculture was the main economic activity of ancient states in highland areas  The mastery of the technology of irrigation also contributed to the growth of agricultural production. Land is one of the most precious possessions of human society throughout history.  Cont’d  Land tenure means  The right of holding or using land.  It is the system of land ownership.  The rules and regulations about the holding, share and use of land in the society is called the Land Tenure System.  The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system.  Cont’d  What is communal land tenure system?  It is the most ancient system of land holding  it is a group right for using land  group refers to the family, the clan and other lineage groups to which the individual belonged.  Each of these groups had communal right to the land  This type of land tenure system practiced by the nomads of eastern Ethiopia  Cont’d  Communal land tenure system gradually changed following the formation of states in the northern of part of the country  New forms of land right emerged in the northern of part of the country so called Rist, Gult and riste-gult  Cont’d A. Rist: What is Rist? It is the form of land tenure developed in the highlands of northern Ethiopia.  It is a kind of communal birth right to the land  It is the right of claim land based on kinship  It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to customary law  The rist owners were known as bale-rist  Cont’d  Under this system,  land can be inherited by linage or ancestor  there is no land lord or tenancy B. Gult: What is Gult?  It is not a right to hold land but,  It is the right to collect tribute from land owners.  Cont’d  Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce  The tribute collected by bale-gults C. Riste-gult What is Riste Gult?  The rights of gult became hereditary were called riste-gult.  Officials used to transfer their position to their offspring  B. Handicraft  Handicraft was another important economic activity of ancient states  Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period  The social, economic and political conditions of ancient states had allowed the emergence of artisans in various fields with diverse forms and applications  Generally, artisans divided into some groups like Metal workers, Carpenters, potters and Tanners  Cont’d  Each artisans engaged in various fields and produced their products  E.g. Metal workers= produced metal tools like swords, bows, arrows, knives, axes, ornaments etc.  Carpenters= engaged in carving wood implements like doors, windows, stools, chairs, tables, beds etc.  Potters= produced ceramic tools/utensils like ovens, jar, pot, kettle, etc.  Cont’d  Tanners= produced leather tools used for bed, bed cover, honey and butter container, drinking cup and clothes until replaced by weavers’ cotton dresses  However, except the carpenters and masons, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized due to their way of life, economic practices and others.  The ruling classes mostly spent their accumulated wealth on imported luxurious items rather than the domestic technology.  Cont’d  The general public attitude towards artisans was not at all encouraging. Consequently, the locally produced agricultural implements and house furniture did not show any significant improvement and sophistication.  C. Trade  Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states  Ancient states obtained considerable income from both internal and international trade.  The major socio-economic and political centers of earliest states served as a major trade centers for internal and international trade  3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements A. Architecture  As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish and one of the unique architectural technologies was the engraving of stele around the third century AD.  The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest architecture of artistic achievements of the Christian world and that is why they were registered by UNESCO as part of world cultural heritage in 1978, two years before that of the Aksumite stele  B. Writing System The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing type that is paleographical writing from left to right and right to left alternatively. The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the ninth century BC. One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is absence of vowels as most of the words are  Cont’d By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical to the first-order forms of modern vocalized alphabet.  C. Calendar Oromo calendar Sidama calendar Ethiopic solar calendar Muslim (Islamic) calendar  D. Numerals  Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century AD.  Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals