History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Hist. 102) PDF

Hist.102 MODULE HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (Hist. 102) FOR STUDENTS OF HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS Writers Surafel Gelgelo (Ph.D.) Addis Ababa University Deres...

Hist.102 MODULE HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (Hist. 102) FOR STUDENTS OF HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS Writers Surafel Gelgelo (Ph.D.) Addis Ababa University Deressa Debu (Ph.D.) Jimma University Dereje Hinew (Ph.D.) Wollega University Meseret Worku (M.A.) Debre-Tabor University Reviewers Kassu Tumiso (M.A.) Arba Minch University Aychegrew Hadera (Ph.D.) Bahir Dar University Mohammed Hassen (Ph.D.) Haramaya University Tsegaye Ebabey (MA) Hawassa University Ketebo Abdiyo (Ph.D.) Jimma University Fesseha Berhe (Assistant Professor) Mekelle University Dessalegn Bizuneh (Assistant Professor) University of Gondar January 2020 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 1  Hist.102 Table of Contents INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE 4 UNIT ONE 8 INTRODUCTION (3 HOURS) 8 1.1. THE NATURE AND USES OF HISTORY 8 1.2. SOURCES AND METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY 12 1.3. HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN 13 1.4. THE GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT 19 UNIT TWO 24 PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4 HOURS) 24 2.1. HUMAN EVOLUTION 24 2.2. NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION 27 2.3. THE PEOPLING OF THE REGION 28 2.4. RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSES 31 UNIT THREE 40 POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY (6 HOURS) 40 3.1. EMERGENCE OF STATES 41 3.2. ANCIENT STATES 42 3.3. EXTERNAL CONTACTS 50 3.4. ECONOMIC FORMATIONS 51 3.5. SOCIO-CULTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS 53 UNIT FOUR 59 POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES (6 HOURS) 59 4.1. THE “RESTORATION” OF THE “SOLOMONIC’’ DYNASTY 60 4.2. POWER STRUGGLE, CONSOLIDATION, TERRITORIAL EXPANSION AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSES 60 4.3. POLITICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DYNAMICS IN MUSLIM SULTANATES 65 4.4. RIVALRY BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AND THE MUSLIM SULTANATES 68 4.5. EXTERNAL RELATIONS 70 UNIT FIVE 74 POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EITEENTH CENTURIES (10 HRS) 74 5.1. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AND THE SULTANATE OF ADAL AND AFTER 75 2  Hist.102 5.2. FOREIGN INTERVENTION AND RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSIES 79 5.3. POPULATION MOVEMENTS 82 5.4. INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION ACROSS ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS DIVERSITIES 88 5.5. PEOPLES AND STATES IN EASTERN, CENTRAL, SOUTHERN AND WESTERN REGIONS 90 5.6. THE GONDARINE PERIOD AND ZEMENE-MESAFINT 104 UNIT SIX 112 INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941 (10 HOURS) 112 6.1. THE NATURE OF INTERACTIONS AMONG PEOPLES AND STATES OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN 113 6.2. THE MAKING OF MODERN ETHIOPIAN STATE 119 6.3. MODERNIZATION ATTEMPTS 125 6.4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS 128 6.5. EXTERNAL RELATIONS 132 UNIT SEVEN 150 INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941–1995 (5 HOURS) 150 7.1. POST-1941 IMPERIAL PERIOD 151 7.2. THE DERG REGIME (1974-1991) 172 7.3. TRANSITIONAL GOVERNMENT 183 3  Hist.102 Introduction to the Module This teaching material is prepared for a common course given to Students of Higher Learning Institutions. The purpose is to help students understand a history of Ethiopia and the Horn from ancient times to 1995 as a base for shaping and bettering the future. The module generally focuses on major topics in the history of Ethiopia and the Horn including social, cultural, economic, and political developments and their interrelationsthereof.The contents of the module consider the chronology and thematic relations of events in time and space. To make this course inclusive and representative, the module also includes regional histories across the period. The module is divided into seven units each of which has its own specific objectives. The first unit defines history, describes why history is important, how history is studied and introduces the region of Ethiopia and the Horn. The second unit seeks to explain peoples and cultures in the region. The major topics treated in the unit are human evolution, Neolithic Revolution and settlement patterns, as well as religion and religious processes. Based on these historical backgrounds, the third unit describes states, external contacts, economic formations and cultural achievements in terms of architecture, writing, calendar, and others to the end of the thirteenth century. Unit Four treats political developments, evangelization and religious movements, trade and external relations of the region from the late thirteenth to the beginning of the sixteenth centuries. It explains how the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates evolved in the region and how their interactions shaped the history of the region in the pre-sixteenth century. Unit Five discusses a history of the region from the early sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth centuries. It deals with interaction between states, foreign interventions, religious controversies, population movements, and how these contributed to the integration of peoples across ethnic and religious diversities to the end of the eighteenth century. Besides, the unit describes peoples and states in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The unit ends up its discussion depicting major conditions and achievements of the Gondarine period, and the Zemene -Mesafint (Era of Princes) in which the Yejju lords played a dominant role. The social, cultural, economic, and political experiences of Ethiopia and the Horn in the nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries that played significant role in shaping the 4  Hist.102 modern history of the region are given space in unit six. Historical processes including state formation and power rivalry, trade, external relations, foreign threats and major battles, centralization and modernization attempts, Italian occupation, and socio-economic conditions from 1800 to 1941 make central position in the modern history of the region. It also underlines how personalities helped change the setting, how societies interacted, and its implication for history of Ethiopia and the Horn. The last unit discusses about the historical developments in the region from the period of liberation from the Italian occupation (1941) to the period of the ratification of the FDRE Constitution (1995). Important issues discussed in this regard include consolidation of Imperial Power and socio-economic conditions, oppositions made by various social groups, national questions, reforms, and political developments. During its preparation, despite serious attempts made, the module is far from being comprehensive in terms of coverage of themes and issues across time and spaces in the region. Certainly, however, the topics and approaches considered in the module derive attention of learners and instructors of higher institutions. Objectives The general objective of this module is to introduce students to the diverse histories of Ethiopia and the Horn the extent to which interaction between peoples throughout the region and with the outside world have shaped history of the region. The specific objectives of the module are to enable students to:  distinguish the nature and uses of history;  identify pertinent sources for the history of the peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn;  describe changes and continuities that unfolded in Ethiopia and the Horn;  elucidate the causes, courses and consequences of events that happened in the region;  explain the nature of the region’s external contacts and their effects;  appreciate peoples’ achievements, heritages and cultural diversities of the region. 5  Hist.102 Competences This module enables students to:  comprehend the nature of history;  analyze relevant sources for History of Ethiopia and the Horn;  describe Ethiopia and the Horn in relation to Human Evolution and Neolithic Revolution;  trace the origin,developments and achievements of states;  analyze the role of the legend of Queen of Sheba in shaping historical developments in Ethiopia from 1270 to 1974;  assess dynamics of the relations between the Christian kingdom and Muslim Sultanates;  appreciate the interplay between local and global developments in shaping the history of the region;  explicate the role of population movements in shaping the history of Ethiopia and the Horn;  assess the evolution of states and societies in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western parts of Ethiopia and the Horn;  identify themajor socio-economic, religious and political achievements of the Gondarine period;  discuss thesalient features and effects of the Zemene-Mesafint;  expound the political process for formation of Modern Ethiopia and the Horn;  discern the efforts and challenges of modernization in the region;  point out thelegacies of major battles, victories and the role of patriots in the resistance struggle against colonialism;  discuss themajor socio-economic and political developments from 1941-74;  reveals the political momentum, reforms and oppositions during the Derg period;  clarify the political developments undertaken from 1991to 95. 6  Hist.102 Map 1. Political Map of Ethiopia and the Horn Source:https://yourfreetemplates.com 7  Hist.102 UNIT ONE INTRODUCTION (3 hours) 1.1. The Nature and Uses of History Introduction This unit introduces you with the nature of history and historiography, the diverse histories of Ethiopia and the Horn and the extent to which interactions between societies throughout the region have shaped human history. History is a systematic study and organized knowledge of the past. The purpose of historical study is not simply to produce a mere list of chronological events about the deeds of the dead but to find patterns and establish meaning through the rigorous study and interpretation of surviving records. Historiography, on the other hand, refers to the history of history; it explores changes in historical interpretations through time. Accordingly, the unit considers popular and academic conceptions of history, the why and how of studying history and trends in historical writing in Ethiopia and the Horn focusing on Ethiopia. Finally, the unit discusses the role of geography in the region’s human history. In this regard, it shows that despite the region’s diverse environments, peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn were never isolated but they interacted throughout history. As a result, the social, economic, cultural and political history of Ethiopia and the Horn is highly intertwined. Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, students will be able to:  differentiate between past and history.  distinguish between popular and professional conceptions of history.  identify categories of historical sources.  explain what methods historians use to study the past.  discern basic patterns of continuity and change.  explain the uses of history.  avoid judging the past solely in terms of present-day norms and values.  explain how the writing of history hasevolved over time.  discuss the role of geography in human history. 8  Hist.102 Unit Starters  What do we mean by history?  What is the relevance of knowing about the past?  Have you ever read a historical work? Do you remember the title and author of the work?  Can you name some writers of the history of Ethiopia and the Horn? A. Nature of History The term history derived from the Greek word Istoria, means “inquiry” or “an account of one’s inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians, Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C), who is often held to be the “father of history.” In ordinary usage, history means all the things that have happened in the human past. The past signifies events, which have taken place and the facts of the past, which are kept in writing. More specifically, the distinction is between what actually happened in the past or that part which exists independently of the historian and still awaits to be recorded and the accounts of the past provided by historians, that is, ‘history’. Historians apply their expertise to surviving records and write history in the form of accounts of the past. Academically, history can be defined as an organized and systematic study of the past. The study involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. Evidently, what actually happened in the past is almost infinite. Historians select which topics and problems they wish to study, as do natural scientists. In this regard, the major concern of history is the study of human society and its interaction with the natural environment, which is also the subject of study by many other disciplines. What differentiates history from other disciplines is that while the latter study the interaction between humans and their environment in the present state, history studies the interaction between the two in the past within the framework of the continuous process of change taking place in time. Because of the longevity of that time, historians organize and divide the human past into discrete periods after identifying significant developments in politics, society, economy, culture, environment etc. through the rigorous study of documents and artifacts left by people of other times and other places. Then they give a label to each period to convey the key characteristics and developments of that era. Accordingly, history is conventionally 9  Hist.102 divided into ancient, medieval and modern history. This is what we call periodization in history; one of the key characteristics of the discipline. When historians talk about continuities or persisting patterns, they are not implying that a particular pattern applied to everyone in the world or even in a particular country or region. Nor are they claiming that absolutely nothing changed in the pattern they are describing. All aspects of human life that is, social, cultural, economic, and political in the past have been changing from time to time; and none of them were practiced in exactly the same way in the lifetime of our ancestors. Nevertheless, some things stay more or less the same for long periods, since few things ever change completely. For example, we continue to speak the languages of our ancestors; follow their beliefs and religious practices; wear the costumes they were wearing; continue to practice their agricultural or pastoral ways of life; maintain the fundamental components or structures of their social organization. In the same vein, the basic fabric of society in Ethiopia and the Horn remains similar and continues to have special characteristics. B. Uses of History Peoples live in the present and they plan for and worry about the future. History, however, is the study of the past. Why bother with the past while living in the present and anticipating what is yet to come? This section discusses the uses of history in the context of the relationship between the past and the present. History Helps Better Understand the Present History is the only significant storehouse of information available for the examination and analysis of how people behaved and acted in the past. People need to produce some sort of account of their past because it is difficult to understand problems that face humanity and society today without tracing their origins in the past. Put differently, knowledge of relevant historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth understanding of many current world situations. 10  Hist.102 History Provides a Sense of Identity Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in the world. As memory is to the individual, history is to the society. An individual without memory finds great difficulty in relating to others and in taking intelligent decisions. A society without history would be in similar condition. It is only through sense of history that communities define their identity, orient them, and understand their relationships with the past and with other societies. History Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as literature, art, philosophy, religion, sociology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc. History Teaches Critical Skills Studying history helps students to develop key research skills. These include how to find and evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and present clearly in writing. These analytical and communication skills are highly usable in other academic pursuits. Gaining skills in sorting through diverse interpretations is also essential to make informed decisions in our day-to-day life. History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right and proper. Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country, which contributes to rid ourselves of some of our inherent cultural provincialism. By studying the past, students of history acquire broad perspectives that give them the range and flexibility required in many life situations. History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives involves a sense of beauty and excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society. To conclude, history should be studied because it is essential to the individual and the society. Only through studying history we can grasp how and why things change; and only 11  Hist.102 through history we can understand what elements of a society persist despite change. Aesthetic and humanistic goals also inspire people to study the past, far removed from present-day utility. Nevertheless, just as history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such abuses come mainly from deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agenda. In such cases, history is written backwards. That is, the past is described and interpreted to justify the present. While personal biases are not always avoidable, a historian is different from a propagandist in that the former takes care to document his judgment and assertions so that they can be subjected to independent and external verification. That said, how do historians study and interpret the past and the changes that took place in periods during which they have not lived? 1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study Historians are not creative writers like novelists. Therefore, the work of historians must be supported by evidence arising from sources. Sources are instruments that bring to life what appear to have been dead. Where there are no sources, there is no history. Sources are, therefore, key to the study and writing of history. Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and Secondary. Primary sources are surviving traces of the past available to us in the present. They are original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and in space. Examples of primary sources are manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes, court records and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials, and artifacts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings. Secondary sources, on the other hand, are second-hand published accounts about past events. They are written long after the event has occurred, providing an interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and how it happened, often based on primary sources. Examples of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or movies about historical events. Secondary materials give us what appear to be finished accounts of certain historical periods and phenomena. Nevertheless, no history work can be taken as final, as new sources keep coming to light. New sources make possible new historical interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions. 12  Hist.102 Oral data constitute the other category of historical sources. Oral sources are especially valuableto study and document the history of non-literate societies. They can also be used to fill missing gaps and corroborate written words. In many societies, people transmit information from one generation to another, for example, through folk songs and folk sayings. This type of oral data is called oral tradition. People can also provide oral testimonies or personal recollections of lived experience. Such source material is known as oral history. For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn, historians use a combination of the sources described above. However, whatever the source of information-primary or secondary, written or oral- the data should be subjected to critical evaluation before used as evidence. Primary sources have to be verified for their originality and authenticity because sometimes primary sources like letters may be forged. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their reconstructions. Oral data may lose its originality and authenticity due to distortion through time. Therefore, it should be crosschecked with other sources such as written documents to determine its veracity or authenticity. In short, historians (unlike novelists) must find evidence about the past, ask questions of that evidence, and come up with explanations that make sense of what the evidence says about the people, events, places and time periods they study about. 1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn Historiography can be defined as the history of historical writing, studying how knowledge of the past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted. People have had some sense of the past perhaps since the beginning of humanity. Yet historiography as an intentional attempt to understand and represent descriptions of past events in writing has rather a briefer career throughout the world. The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by ancient Greek historians notably Herodotus and Thucydides (c.455-400 B.C.E.) The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese. The most important early figure in Chinese historical thought and writing was the Han dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.). Despite such early historiographical traditions, history emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century first in Europe and subsequently in other parts of the world including the US. The German historian, Leopold 13  Hist.102 Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues established history as an independent discipline in Berlin with its own set of methods and concepts by which historians collect evidence of past events, evaluate that evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of the subject. Ranke’s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he is considered as the “father of modern historiography.” Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past hundred years in ways that merit fuller treatment than can be afforded here. This section is devoted to exploring significant transformations in historical writing. In order to appreciate twentieth- century historiography of the region, it is first necessary to examine earlier forms of historiography (historical writing). The earliest known reference that we have on history of Ethiopia and the Horn is the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, written in the first century A.D by an anonymous author. Another document describing Aksum’s trade and the then Aksumite king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea is the Christian Topography composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D. Inscriptions aside, the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from the seventh century A.D. The document was found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha. This was followed by a manuscript discovered in Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day Wollo in the thirteenth century A.D. The value of manuscripts is essentially religious. Yet, for historians, they have the benefit of providing insights into the country’s past. For example, the manuscript cited above contains the list of medieval kings and their history in brief. The largest groups of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history are hagiographies originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Invariably written in Ge’ez, an important function of hagiographies is enhancing the prestige of saints. Yet other related anecdotes are also introduced, and often discussed in detail such as the development of the church and the state including territorial conquests by reigning monarchs. A parallel hagiographical tradition existed among Muslim communities of the country. One such account offers tremendous insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wollo, in the late nineteenth century. Besides the saint’s life, the development of indigenous Islam and contacts between the region’s Muslim community and the outside world are some of the issues discussed in this document. 14  Hist.102 Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles. Chronicles in the ancient Ethiopian Ge’ez tongue first appeared in the fourteenth century and continue (sometimes in Amharic) into the early twentieth. Kings or their successors entrusted the writing of chronicles to court scribes or clergymen of recognized clerical training and calligraphic skills. The earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditurespectively. Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts-past and contemporary about the monarch’s genealogy, upbringing military exploits, piety and statesmanship. Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework, even if it would require considerable labor to convert their relative chronology to an absolute one. They are also averse to quantification. Furthermore, chronicles explain historical events mainly in religious terms; they offer little by way of social and economic developments even in the environs of the palace. However, in conjunction with other varieties of written documents, such as hagiographies and travel accounts by foreign observers, chronicles can provide us with a glimpse into the character and lives of kings, their preoccupations and relations with subordinate officials and, though inadequately, the evolution of the Ethiopian state and society. Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on various aspects of the region’s history. For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture, language and import-export trade in the main central region of the east African coast in the tenth and in the fourteenth centuries respectively. For the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries we have two documents composed by Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesses to the events they described. The first document titled Futuh al Habesha was composed by Shihab al-Din, who recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the sixteenth century. Besides the operation of the war including the conquest of northern and central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, the document describes major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of Ethiopia, although the discussion abruptly ends in 1535. The other first-hand account was left to us by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledas (r. 1632-67). 15  Hist.102 Other materials that appeared in the sixteenth century include Abba Bahrey’s Geez script on the Oromowritten in 1593. Notwithstanding its limitations, the document provides us with first-hand information about the Oromo population movement including the Gadaa System. The contribution of European missionaries and travelers to the development of Ethiopian historiography is also significant. From the early sixteenth until the late nineteenth centuries, missionaries (Catholics and Protestants) came to the country with the intention of staying, and who, nevertheless, maintained intimate links with Europe. Thus, the missionaries’ sources provide us with valuable information covering a considerable period. Some of the major topics covered by these sources include religious and political developments within Ethiopia, and the country’s foreign relations. An example of such account is The Prester John of the Indies, composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez who accompanied the Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520. In addition to the missionary sources, travel documents had important contribution to the development of Ethiopian historiography. One example of travel documents is James Bruce’s Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile. Like other sources, however, both the missionaries and travelers’ materials can only be used with considerable reservations and with care for they are socially and politically biased. Foreign writers also developed interest in Ethiopian studies. One of these figures was a German, Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704). Ludolf was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the seventeenth century. He wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as A New History of Ethiopia). Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country’s history largely based on information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that time. In the nineteenth century, August Dillman published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history. Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical research endeavors. Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early twentieth century. This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who made conscious efforts to distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory tone when writing about monarchs. The earliest group of these writers includeAleqa Taye Gebre- 16  Hist.102 Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis and Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi. Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn joined them. Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. Taye and Fisseha-Giorgiswrote books on the history of Ethiopia while Asme produced a similar work on the Oromo people. Notwithstanding his other works, Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian history while Gebre-Hiwot has Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration) to his name. The most prolific writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was, however, Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie. Hiruy published four major works namely Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia). In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and methodological sophistication in their works. Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early experiment in modern history writing and publications. After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia professional historians who came after him. Tekle-Tsadik has published about eight historical works. Tekle-Tsadik made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors. Another work of importance in this period is Yilma Deressa’s Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen(A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century). The book addresses the Oromo population movement and the wars between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim sultanates as its main subjects. Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also contributed his share. Among others, he wrote Zikre Neger.Zikre Neger is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems and taxation. Another work dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure is left to us by Gebre-Wold Engidawork. Another writer of the same category was Dejazmach Kebede Tesema. Kebede wrote his memoir of the imperial period, published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C. The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in this period that history emerged as an academic discipline. The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time occupation began with the opening of the Department of History in 1963 at the 17  Hist.102 then Haile Selassie I University (HSIU). The production of BA theses began towards the end of the decade. The Department launched its MA and PhD programs in 1979 and 1990 respectively. Since then researches by faculty (both Ethiopians and expatriates) and students have been produced on various topics. Although entirely a research organization, the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) is the other institutional home of professional historiography of Ethiopia. The IES was founded in 1963. Since then the Institute housed a number of historians of whom the late Richard Pankhurst, the first Director and founding member of the Institute is worthy of note here. Pankhurst’s prolific publication record remains unmatched. He has authored or co-authored twenty-two books and produced several hundred articles on Ethiopia. Since its foundation, the IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical research. The Institute’s library contains literary works of diverse disciplines and has its fair share in the evolution of professional historiography of Ethiopia. The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon. With the establishment of independent nations, a deeper interest in exploring their own past quickly emerged among African populations, perhaps stimulated by reactions to decades of education in an alien imperial historiography. With this came an urgent need to recast the historical record and to recover evidence of many lost pre-colonial civilizations. The decolonization of African historiography required new methodological approach (tools of investigation) to the study of the past that involved a critical use of oral data and tapping the percepts of ancillary disciplines like archeology, anthropology and linguistics. At the same time, European intellectuals’ own discomfort with the Euro-centrism of previous scholarship provided for the intensive academic study of African history, an innovation that had spread to North America by the 1960s. Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in London and the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones. Yet African historiography has not been the sole creation of interested Europeans. African universities have, despite the instabilities of politics and civil war in many areas, trained their own scholars and sent many others overseas for training who eventually published numerous works on different aspects of the region’s history. 18  Hist.102 1.4. The Geographical Context The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa, which now contains the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. The region consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley. The Rift Valley is a fissure in the Earth’s crust running down from Syria to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates. The major physiographic features of the region are a massive highland complex of mountains and plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley and surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts and tropical forests along the periphery. The diversity of the terrain led to regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns. As with the physical features, people across the region are remarkably diverse: they speak a vast number of different languages, profess to many distinct religions, live in a variety types of dwellings, and engage in a wide range of economic activities. At the same time, however, peoples of the region were never isolated; they interacted throughout history from various locations. Thus, as much as there are many things that make people of a certain area unique from the other, there are also many areas in which peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn share common past. The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others through commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and waning of state systems. Yet, the evolution of human history owed much to geographical factors notably location, landforms, resource endowment, climate and drainage systems which continue to impact, as incentives and deterrents, the movement of people and goods in the region. In this section, we will study the impact that the region’s geography has on the way people live and organize themselves into societies. Spatial location in relationship to other spaces and locations in the world is one geographical factor that has significant bearing on the ways in which history unfolds. Ethiopia and the Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean on the one hand, and the present-day eastern frontiers of Sudan and Kenya on the other. Since early times, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast Africa to the Eastern Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, India, and the Far East. Likewise, the Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the Near and Middle East, India and the Far East. 19  Hist.102 Another element of geography factor that had profound impact on human history is drainage system. Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems. These are the Nile River, Gibe/Omo–Gojeb, Genale/Jubba-Shebele, the Awash River,and the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakesystems. Flowing from Uganda in the south to the Sudan in the north, the White Nile meets the Blue Nile (Abay in Ethiopia that starts from the environs of Tana Lake) in Khartoum and eventually, drains into the Mediterranean Sea through Egypt. The Awash River System is an entirely Ethiopian system and links the cool rich highlands of Central Ethiopia with the hot, dry lowlands of the Danakil Depression. The Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes System is a self-contained drainage basin, and includes a string of lakes stretching from Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana (formerly known as Rudolf) on the Ethio- Kenyan border. The Gibe /Omo–Gojeb River System links southern Ethiopia to the semi- desert lowlands of northern Kenya. The Shebele and Genale rivers originate in the Eastern highlands and flow southeast toward Somalia and the Indian Ocean. Only the Genale (known as the Jubba in Somalia) makes it to the Indian Ocean; the Shebele disappears in sand just inside the coastline. Map 2: Physical Map of Ethiopia Source: Bahru Zewde (Compiled), A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Addis Ababa, 1998), p. 9. The above watersheds are very important in the life and history of the peoples inhabiting the region. Besides providing people with the source of their livelihood, the drainage systems 20  Hist.102 facilitated the movement of peoples and goods across diverse environments, resulting in the exchange of ideas, technology, knowledge, cultural expressions, and beliefs. Thus, studying the drainage systems of Ethiopia and the Horn is crucial for proper understanding of the relationships of the peoples living within the river basins mentioned previously. Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major distinct environmental zones. The vast Eastern lowland covers the narrow coastal strip of northeastern Eritrea, widens gradually and descends southwards to include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the Danakil Depression, the lower Awash valley, and the arid terrain in northeast of the Republic of Djibouti. It then extends to the Ogaden, the lower parts of Hararghe, Bale, Borana, Sidamo and the whole territory of the Republic of Somalia. There is no much seasonal variation in climatic condition of this zone. Hot and dry conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular (little) rainfall except in limited areas along the rivers Awash, Wabe-Shebele and Genale/Jubba that traverse the region and a few offshore islands in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean that are inhabited by people closely related to those of immediate mainland districts. Much of the lowland territories are covered by shrub and bush as its major vegetation. Immediately to the west of and opposite to the eastern lowland region forms the highland massif that starts from northern Eritrea and continues all the way to southern Ethiopia. The eastern extension of the highland massif consists the Arsi, Bale and Hararghe plateau. The major divide between the western and eastern parts of this zone is the Rift Valley. The major physiographic features of the zone are complex of mountains, deep valleys, and extensive plateaus. Further to the west, along the western foothills or on the periphery of the plateau and on borderlands of the Sudan, stretching from north to south, hot lowlands were characterized in earlier times by thick forests chiefly on the banks of the Nile and its tributaries. Despite the varied physical environments discussed above, the countries of the Horn of Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together as far back as recorded history goes. Population movements had caused a continuous process of interaction, creating a very complex picture of settlement patterns. The high degree of interaction and the 21  Hist.102 long common history of much of the population had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large parts of the region. Linguistic and cultural affinities are therefore as important as ethnic origin in the grouping of the population. Learning Activities  Discuss the similarities and differences between the past and history?  Why is history worth attention as a subject of study?  What do we mean by change and continuity in history?  What techniques do historians use to write about the past?  What are the different sources of history? How do you evaluate them?  What is the difference between historiography and history?  Who was Leopold von Ranke?  Discuss how the writing of Ethiopian history has changed over the last hundred years by using the writings of individual historians.  Briefly describe the similarities and differences between chronicles and hagiographies and their contributions to write Ethiopian history.  Describe the role of travel and missionary accounts to the study of Ethiopian history.  Explain how geographical factors shaped human history in Ethiopia and the Horn. 22  Hist.102 References Bahru Zewde. “A Century of Ethiopian Historiography”.Journal of Ethiopian Studies, Vol. 33, No. 2 (November, 2000). Brundage Anthony. Going to the Sources: A Guide to Historical Research and Writing. Third Edition. Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 2002. Carr, E.H. What is History?, Revised Edition, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. Hacker Diana. Rules for Writers. 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press, 1996. Hamerows S. Theodore. Reflections on History and Historians. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1987. Marwik, Arthur. The Nature of History, 3rd ed. 1989. Mesfin Wolde Mariam. An Introductory Geography of Ethiopia.Addis Ababa, 1972. Rampolla Lynn Mary. A Pocket Guide to Writing in History, 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford Books/St. Martin’s Press, 2001. Shafer J., Robert. A Guide to Historical Method. 3rd Edition. Homewood, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, 1980. Tosh, John. The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods, And New Directions in the Study of Modern History. 3rd Edition. United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited, 2002. Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition as History. James Curry Publishers, 1985. 23  Hist.102 UNIT TWO PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4 hours) Introduction The Region Ethiopia and the Horn is referred to as the cradle of humankind. It is also a region where early civilizations including food production, making tools and religion took place. These developments contributed to the social evolutions, economic formations, and socio-cultural and political settings. This unit traces human evolution and Neolithic Revolution and then describes languages and peoples settlement along with cultural settings of the region. The purpose is to show that the region is home to diverse peoples, and cultures (languages, religion, customs…) and economic activities. Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, students will be able to:  evaluate pieces of evidence for Ethiopia and the Horn as the cradle of mankind;  explain Ethiopia and the Horn in relation to Neolithic Revolution;  identify the peoples and languages of Ethiopia and the Horn;  elucidate settlement patterns and economic formations of the peoples of the region;  discuss religion and religious processes in the region. Unit Starters  How do you think human beings came into being?  What do you know about the domestication of plants and animals?  Explain how trade facilitates peoples’ relations.  Define language and language families.  What is religion?  Can you name some religious practices in Ethiopia and the Horn? 2.1. Human Evolution Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of the globe that had been formed through gradual natural process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years before present (B. P.) The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P. Blue green algae, small 24  Hist.102 plants, fishes, birds and other small beings emerged at c. 800 million years B. P. Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million years B. P. and then some primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) while others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors). Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity. Evidences related to both biological and culturalevolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian and foreign scholars. A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007. Ardipithicus ramiduskadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was discovered in Middle Awash. Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.Other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B. P.) in Middle Awash. A three years old child’s fossil termed as Australopithecusafarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000. Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.) with 40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis looks like bipedal female was discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D. Picture 1: Fossil of Lucy Source: Bahru Zewde, A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn (AAU, 1998), p. 12. 25  Hist.102 Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana. An eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in Afar language) dated to 2.5 million years B.Pwas discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999. The development of the human brain was to be the main feature of the next stage of human evolution, which produced the genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P. Different evidences of the genus homo have been recovered in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. A partial skull of a fossil termed asHomo habilis, which is derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands), dated 1.9 million years B. P. has been found in the Lower Omo. A fossil named Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.) was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain size. Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the world. Skeleton of Archaic Homosapiens (knowledgeable human being, dated 400, 000 years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash. Fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens (100, 000 years B.P.) were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo (in 1967). In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the oldest date in the world for modern Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years B.P. Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-economic transformation on human life. It can be conventionally grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings. By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped in to Mode I (Olduwan, which was named based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania), Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, France) and Mode III (Sangoon). The Mode I stone tools are mainly characterized by crude and mono-facial styles, and were produced by the direct percussion. Mode II stone tools were produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features. Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible and finest form of production by the use of obsidian. 26  Hist.102 Examples of the above types of stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and the Horn. Fossilized animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) were found with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them (the oldest evidence of stone tool in the world) at Dikika in 2010. Artifact findings suggest that Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar.Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7.million years B.P, invented fire and started burial practice. Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963. Homosapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000 years B. P. Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P. Other vital sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have offered noteworthy information about Stone Age communities. The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods. The first, the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.) was the period when human being developed language with shelter in cave using stone, bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing. There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna, and children and females as gatherers of flora. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.) was transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P). 2.2. Neolithic Revolution During the Neolithic period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life. This was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals. Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’ population resulted in the declining number of animals and availability of plants. As food gatherers were already aware of growing cycle of most of grass types, they began to thickly grow those, which were most common and yielded seeds that are more edible. The big animals, which depended on dense bushes for sustenance, were reduced by hunting and animals that people were able to domesticate easily were smaller ones. 27  Hist.102 The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the world. In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc. The domestication of enset plant (Enseteedule) reduced shifting cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion. The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures and animal remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea evinces the existence of Neolithic material culture. The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us agricultural stone tools. Remains associated with domesticated cattle,chickpeas and vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana. Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as rock paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar. Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara. Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya and Futajalon in West Africa were among known places of domestication of animals like Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle that in due course expanded to Ethiopia and the Horn. 2.3. The Peopling of the Region 2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn. Beneath this apparent diversity, there is some degree of unity. Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major language super families. These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan. A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families:  Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:  Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.  Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen. 28  Hist.102  Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.  Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.  Semitic: is divided into two:  North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).  South: is further divided into two  Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.  Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).  Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, Kachama- Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc. Among its groups, Ometo includes Wolayta and Gamo while main Gonga is Keficho. B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk. Language classification did not remain static. Factors like population movements, warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted in intense linguistic processes that forced languages to be affected. In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger of extinction while others thrived off the social phenomenon that is evidently observed. 2.3.2. Settlement Patterns A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples across the landscape, is the results of long historical processes in northeast Africa. In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse. Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the lowlands. Based on historical linguistic and history of inter-peoples relations, studies indicate that environmental, socio-economic, and political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of peoples in the region. 29  Hist.102 Since early times,the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different directions. In due course, the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn and have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania. Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The Semites are the second majority people next to the Cushites. Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin. Yet, in the earlier times, they had extended much further to the north. In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo. The latter are identified as the Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan border. 2.3.3. Economic Formations The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism. While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very rare to think of a farmer without a head of cattle or two. Likewise, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms of livelihood have coexisted and quite often interrelated. Yet, topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn. A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern lowland region since early periods. Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle has been the most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo. While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River, the Somali have owed a great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) Rivers. The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years supporting sizable populations. Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming. It is here that sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups. The major economic activity of the Omotic has been 30  Hist.102 mixed farming and trade in northern Omo while southern Omo have predominantly practiced pastoralism and fishing. Many of the Omotic groups have also been famous in metallurgy, weaving and other crafts. In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the dominant economic formations were pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting. For instance, sorghum, millet, cotton and others have been largely cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-Sudanese border since antiquity. The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food. Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high economic and social values. Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with northern Sudan. 2.4. Religion and Religious Processes 2.4.1. Indigenous Religion This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which are native to the region and have been followed by the local people since ancient times. A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred. Spiritual functionaries officiate over rituals, propitiate divinities, and are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between the society and spirits. Here under, some major indigenous religious groups that still claim the allegiance of the region's population are discussed. Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. Waqa's power is manifested through thespirits called Ayyana. The major spirits include Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit), Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit), Balas (victory spirit), Chato/Dora (wild animals defender), Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit), Jaricha (peace spirit), Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc. There is also a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost called Ekera in the surrounding of his/her abode before death, or his/her cemetery (Hujuba). In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of ever-flowing river and top of mountain respectively, there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New Year (Birbo) rite.Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have maintained link between the Ayyana and 31  Hist.102 the believers. Qallu ritual house is called Galma located on hilltop or in the grove of large trees. On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy at which Qallu or Qallitti is possessed by Ayyana so that s/he can interpret mysteries. The Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) used to make pilgrimage to get consecration of senior Qallu (AbbaMuda or anointment father) until about 1900. Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at center and white at bottom representing those in pre-active life, active (luba) and those in post-active life respectively. Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, who is believed to exist before everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana (moon). Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard), Hausula, Qedane and Warriqa attracted prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo mountains chosen by Anjanchoand Jaramanjcho. One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the power to send rain in drought. Fandanano (sing. Fandancho) practice is believed to be introduced by either spiritual leaders, Itto and Albajafrom Bimado clan, or Boyamo, father of five Hadiya clans, and was largely followed by inhabitants of Boshana, Misha etc. The Kambata haveNegitaor Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials known as Magnancho. The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Magenoand had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh. The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God). Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (supreme deity), Bozha (thunder God) and Damwamwit (health Goddess). The Gurage and the Yem had a common deity known as Abba at Enar (Henar). The Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God). So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it was in charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity). Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village called Magos. The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho. The Wolayta called God Tosaand spirit Ayyana including Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo spirit) etc. Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of Moytiliya. Annual worship of 32  Hist.102 spirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta usually at the end of May and beginning of June to offer sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta (Dubusha). People gathered around tree called Dongowa, which varied from clan to clan: sycamore (Ficussur exasperate) for the Bubula, podocarpo for Zatuwa etc. The Qesiga called their meeting place Kasha (Dabre). To protect people from eating crop before harvesting Zomboro clan used Diqaysa practice by planting in their fields sour olive and nubica trees. The Wolayta also had the practice of Chaganna (prohibited days to work) to protect produce from disaster. They also chose and kept dark brown heifer called Beka (Beqabe) or Baqa Potilliya (Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday fate. If they made error in respecting this custom, they would anoint their bodies with a leaf called Aydameta (ground red pepper) as repentance. Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera Eza Keta (ritual house). The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo and a person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-nayo. Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno and its host is called dochi-nayo or Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno (including Arito and Wudia Riti), with residence at Adio. Harvest spirit is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo. Earth and area spirits are known as Showe-kollo and Dude-baro respectively. There are also local spirits like damochechi of Channa, yaferochi of Sharada and wogidochi of Adio as well as gepetato or king of hill identified by Yetecho clan as landowner. Members of the Dugo clan led spiritual services. The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa, which created everything and presides over the universe. The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for the prevention of drought, flooding, erosion, disease and starvation within the community and their surrounding environment. Among various prayer rituals, the first is Gure Shuka for preservation of their locality through slaughtering animals by calling the name of God being at the tip of the mountains. The second is Shode De’na, praying and slaughtering when unexpected disease happens. The third is Marrowa Shuka; slaughtering for children to grow without disease and to prevent children from evil spirits attack; for rehabilitation of wealth; to promote harmonious way of life and productivities in the family. The rituals are led by recognized elders, whose pray and bless are trusted to reach God among the three clans: Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa. 33  Hist.102 The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe in the coming of God through rain, lightning and thunder, and rainbow is necklace of God. Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation or sign of God. There are also spirits associated with clan- spears names such as WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder. The Nuer believe that when a person dies, flesh is committed to earth while breath or life goes back to Kuoth and soul that signifies human personality remains alive as a shadow or a reflection, and departs together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts. An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism. 2.4.2. Judaism Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established with the ancient Jewish (Hebrew). Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples since early times. It began to be clearly noticed in the 4th century AD, when the Bete-Israel (literally, house of Israel), one of the ancient peoples in the region, refused to be converted to Christianity. The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic Judaism). Many of the Bete-Israel accounts of their own origins stress that they stem from the very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.). Alternative timelines include perhaps the later crises in Judea, e.g., split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile. Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba), and considered to be the first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia. Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D. Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with the Agaws. Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream Jewish for at least a millennium. The Jewish developed and lived for centuries in northern and northwestern Ethiopia. 34  Hist.102 2.4.3. Christianity Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360), who dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god), Arwe (serpent- python god), Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity. Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius (Fremnatos). When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328- 373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC). Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch. Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of fifth century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints shown in the table below: Table I: The Nine Saints Name Origin Church/Monastery Location of the Church Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Za Mika’el) Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray Abuna Isaq (Abba Gerima) Rome Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa ) Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Pentelwon Asbo (North East of Aksum) Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum) Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast of Aksum) Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta Source: Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to1270 (Addis Ababa: Haile-Selassie I University Press, 1972), pp.115-9. The saints also translated Bible and other religious books into Geez. Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and monasteries were constructed. These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar. These churches and monasteries are not merely religious centers, but served through the ages as repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art. 35  Hist.102 From mid-sixteenthtothe early seventeenth centuries, Jesuits tried to convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic. Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits. However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within EOC that is discussed in subsequent units. As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of treaties concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active. Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries and their major leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf. Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win confidence of local people. They translated spiritual books into vernaculars. They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used them in new versions as equivalent to God. Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith. These schools were open to all children of chiefs and farmers. They also provided medical facilities. All these attracted a large number of followers. Eventually, continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in grafting of new teaching on indigenous religion. 2.4.4. Islam When Prophet Mohammed startedthe teaching of Islam in Mecca in 610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers. Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum.The first group of refuges was led by Jafar Abu Talib. In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king under whom none arepersecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are suffering." The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28. Leaders of the Quraysh askedArmah to repatriate the refugees, but the king did not comply.Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refuge with me.” 36  Hist.102 Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through Jihad, but through peaceful ways including trade. Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of eighth century. In the earlytenth century, the Muslim community on the islands developed a sultanate. In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast. It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers and merchants. Notwithstanding the debates, the Dahlak routeplayed a minor role in introduction of Islam into the interior as Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum and later states of northern Ethiopia and open proselytization of Islam was prohibited. Thus, the port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served as an important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly intothe present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe. Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and ninth centuries. From there, it radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia through the role of Muslim clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders. In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint of medieval period, played very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar shrine. Islam was introduced into Somali territories in 8th century A. D. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269. Islam was further expanded by mystical orders (turuq, singulartariqa). Among these, the Qadiriyya (named after Hanbali jurist Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, 1077-1166) emphasized collective devotion (hadra). Ahmadiyya, which had been set up by Ahmad Ibn Idris al Fasi of Fez in Morocco (1760-1837) stressed austerity, turban and veil. It had contacts with Tijaniyya (named after Abu l-Abbas Ahmad b. Muhammad b. al-Mukhtar al Tijani, 1737- 1815) and Summaniyya (named after Muhammad b. Abd al-Karim al Sammāni, 1718-75). The sheiks of these orders expanded Islam as far as the Gibe region. The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims. 37  Hist.102 Learning Activities  Why do you think Lucy had attracted more attention from the world than other human remains discovered in Ethiopia and the Horn?  Discuss the salient features of the three species of Homo family.  List major developments in the three stone Ages.  Explain the link between hunting and taming animals, and gathering and plant domestication.  Explain the relations between the domestication of plants and animals and early civilizations in Ethiopia and the Horn?  What are the major categories of language families in Ethiopia and the Horn? Describe also their geographical distribution in the region.  Explain how the study of language can be useful in understanding cultures and societies.  Identify the commonalities among indigenous religions of Ethiopia.  Discuss the role of trade and religion in the relations between peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.  Explain how physical environment -land forms, vegetation, climate- affect the way people live and the ways that humans organize themselves in social, political, and economic institutions. Illustrate your discussion with examples from the experience of peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn. 38  Hist.102 References Bahru Zewde. A History of Modern Ethiopia 1855-1991. AAU Press, 2002. _____.A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn. AAU: History Department, 1998. _____. Society, State and History: Selected Essays. AAU Press, 2008. Balisky, E. Paul. “Wolaitta Evangelists”. Ph.D Thesis, Aberder University, 1997. Bender, M. L. et al. eds. The Languages of Ethiopia.London, 1976. Clark, J.D. The Prehistoric Cultures of the Horn of Africa. Cambridge University Press,1954. Finneran, Neil. The Archaeology of Ethiopia. London: Routledge, 2007. Gada Melba. Oromiya. Khartoum, 1988. Mohammed Hassen. The Oromo of Ethiopia 1570-1860. Cambridge, 1990. ______. The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia 1300-1700. James Currey, 2015. Pherron, Shannon P. MC et al. “Evidence for Stone-Tool-Assisted Consumption of Animal Tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia.” In Nature, Volume 466. Phillipson, David. African Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ______. Ancient Churches of Ethiopia; Fourth-Fourteenth Centuries.New Haven and London: YaleUniversity Press, 2009. Sergew Hable-Selassie. Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to1270. Addis Ababa: Haile-Selassie I University Press, 1972. Taddesse Tamrat. Church and State in Ethiopia. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972. Trimingham, J. Spencer. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press, 1952. Workineh Kelbessa. Traditional Oromo Attitudes Towards Environment.Addis Ababa: OSSREA, 2001. 39  Hist.102 UNIT THREE POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY (6 hours) Introduction From ancient times to the end of the thirteenth century, societies in Ethiopia and the Horn underwent political, economic, social and cultural changes. One remarkable change in the period was the evolution of states with diverse socio-cultural and economic settings. While agriculture and trade contributed to the evolution of states, religions shaped the socio-cultural setup of the states in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The results of the period were socio-cultural achievements such as architecture, writing, calendar, numerals etc. Furthermore, the unit explains the external relations of the period that had significant role in shaping the history of region. Unit Objectives At the end of this unit, students will be able to:  show the evolution of states in Ethiopia and the Horn;  identify the factors for the rise and developments of the prominent ancient states;  examine the relations among these states and the effects thereof;  explicate the external relations of the period;  elucidate socio-economic and cultural achievements of the period. Unit Starters  What does a state mean?  Can you name some of the earliest states in Ethiopia and the Horn?  Tell how Ethiopian people in different geographical locations maintained relationships.  Explain how religion facilitates peoples’ relations. 40  Hist.102 3.1. Emergence of States One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture. Peoples had to descend from mountainsides to build houses near cultivated plots fencing both farming fields and residences, and harvested crops had to be stored and protected from humidity and rodents. Families preferred to live together forming larger communitiesfor better security and to help each other in hard works. Using stick or hoe for planting was gradually replaced by ox-drawn plough and farmers acquired surplus produce to exchange with better tools and clothes with the artisans who were able to specialize in the production of these items. Gradually, intermediaries (traders) also began to buy the products of both to take to predetermined places or markets for exchange. Therefore, states were formed mainly through the expansion of agriculture that gave rise to the class differentiation. Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated the development of states. State refers to an autonomous political unit having population, defined territory, sovereignty and government with the power to decree and enforce laws. State was the outcome of regular cultural process. In this regard, it should be emphasized that, states arose independently in different places and at different times. Favorable environmental conditions helped to hasten the rate of transformation in some regions. The first states were theocratic states and priests (shaman) maintained the social and religious affairs of their people. As production became market oriented, the priests were gradually replaced by chiefs,who began collecting regular and compulsory tributes known as protection payments with which they maintained themselves; their supporters chiefly the army, the bureaucracy and other followers. Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa, where early state formation took place. From small beginnings, such states gradually developed into powerful kingdoms and even empires with a well-demarcated social structure. Geographical proximity to and control of the international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean along with their ports as well as rich interior favored some of them to become stronger than their neighbors and eventually dominated them. 41  Hist.102 3.2. Ancient States 3.2.1. North and Northeast A. Punt Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn. The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, accompanied by vivid paintings; tell of a series of naval expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt. Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy). During Pharaoh Asosi, treasurer of God Bawardede took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt. The best described and illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by the order of the famous Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), whose expedition is documented at her tomb in Dier El Bahri. She sent five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat. The expedition was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu, his wife Ati, sons, daughters and followers. The expedition was able to return collecting frank incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc. Hatshepsut presented some parts of the items to her god, Amun. It was because of the ritual importance of their exports that Puntites were also known as Khebis of the Ta Netjeru (divine or ghosts land). Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to Egypt. In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt. Scholars have not reached agreement as to the exact location of Punt. The varieties of incense and myrrh mentioned in the writings have suggested northern or northeastern Somalia to some scholars while others are inclined more towards Northern Ethiopia because of the reference to gold, ebony and monkeys. The latter reinforce their guess arguing that at that early period, Egyptian sailboats might not have been strong enough to pass through the Strait of Bab-el Mandeb into the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Considering the two suggestions, still some others argue that it was probably stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Gardafui. 42  Hist.102 B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum. Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth century BC shows that he used politico- religious title known as Mukarib. Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astater (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in the domain of the Da’amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers.There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time. There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The major ones are:  Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers. It probably emerged around 1, 000 BC as a small emporium where South Arabian merchants and their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other commodities coming from the interior. It seems that the period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about 750 to 500 B.C. Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry as well as still standing temple and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s glory.  Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are inscribed in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings representing herds of cattle have been excavated.  Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is fetched and the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered. There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc. C. The Aksumite State The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C. Initially, its power was limited to a relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs. Gradually, however, it expanded to include large territories in all directions. In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and from the northern most corner of Eritrea and possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa. 43  Hist.102 According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea was the major port of Aksum. The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the Red Sea coast passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even further west across Takaze River. The document also mentioned ports of Aden (Eudaemon) Gulf like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca. The major items of export of the Aksumite state consisted mainly of the natural products such as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some curiosity animals like apes. In turn, a number of manufactured products like garments and textiles from Egypt, India, Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from Roman Empire and Syria were imported. Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used to communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world. Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea (Asia Minor). The Adulis inscription written in Greek about an unknown king, which eventually was published in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book, the Christian Topography, describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas. It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant region called Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile. A big caravan made up of close to five hundred merchants some of them special agents of the kings of Aksum would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to exchange for gold. Yet, as they did not speak each other’s language, and did not even trust to be near to each other to bargain through signs and gestures, the whole exchange was done without one side seeing the other. This was a good example of silent trade. Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the South Arabian region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture. Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts between the two regions. One of such known recorded conflict between areas on both sides of the sea took place around 200 A.D. Accordingly, peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in present day Yemen, had difficulties in defending themselves against the army of the Aksumite king, Gadarat. 44  Hist.102 From the third to seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II,etc. minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas